Appendix

A deeper dive into Revelation theology, personalities, and Church history.

The articles in the Appendix are linked to names, dates, historical events, and key figures relevant to the study of the Book of Revelation. They can be examined alongside the corresponding chapter studies or enjoyed as an independent exploration of Church history and Christian theology.

(*All Bible verses are from the NIV unless otherwise noted)

ANTIOCHUS IV, “Epiphanes”

His dictates forbade circumcision on pain of death and sold thousands of Jewish families into slavery. All copies of Scripture that could be found were destroyed. To circumcise a child or to possess a copy of the Law was a crime punishable by death. It is thought that more than eighty thousand Jews were murdered or sold into slavery during this reign of terror.

The Jews rebelled against Antiochus, and the Seleucid armies invaded Palestine in 168 BC, capturing Jerusalem. Judas Maccabaeus and his father Matthias, a Jewish priest, stirred the Jews to rebellion. Judas proved to be a military genius and, in several strategic military campaigns, won victories over four Seleucid armies³.

When Antiochus IV died (164 BC), the Seleucids relented on the harsh policies and offered the Jews freedom of worship.  But Judas Maccabaeus was determined to win complete freedom for the Jews and continued the war. He died two years later, but the independence of Judaea was eventually won under the leadership of his younger brothers. This period lasted almost exactly three and a half years, from June 168 B.C. to December 165 B.C. The Jewish celebration of Hanukah commemorates the restoration and the cleansing of the Temple⁴.

 ARIUS, ARIANISM

In 313 AD, Constantine and Licinius issued an edict at Milan, granting full and unlimited toleration to Christians. Their churches and property were restored, and the persecution of the saints was ordered to cease.

Constantine aimed to unite the newly acknowledged Church and reconcile theological differences that had persisted for decades regarding the relationship between Christ and God. Most church leaders taught the doctrine of coequal Trinitarianism, representing God the Father and Jesus Christ the Son as of one essence (homoousios – consubstantial) and coeternal⁵.

The early apostolic church (40-110 AD) confessed Jesus as the embodiment of God⁶. It placed him on the same level with the Father and the Holy Spirit. They simply recognized the mystery of the personhood of Christ with little debate.  According to Everett Ferguson, The great majority of Christians had no clear views about the nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it⁷.

Harry Boer gives two main reasons that the church grew less willing to simply accept this mystery⁸:

1. The influx of non-Jewish people into the church introduced the Greek culture and philosophy of that time. The educated Greek mind enjoyed intellectual debates and philosophical discussions.
2. Traditional Greek philosophy drew sharp distinctions between the material world and the spiritual. For many Greeks, the creation of a material world by a spiritual God and the Incarnation of that same spiritual God into a material body posed deep philosophical problems. How could a God of pure spirit create a world of pure matter and then become a man of spirit and matter?

Arius preached that Jesus was a created, finite being who was not equal in divinity with God the Father. His doctrine became a flashpoint of theological controversy and was denounced by the early church as a major heresy. He attracted a large following through his message, which integrated Neoplatonism, emphasizing the absolute purity of Divinity as the highest perfection, with a literal, rationalist approach to the New Testament texts⁹. This point of view was publicized about 323 CE through the poetic verse of Arius’ major work, Thalia (banquet, or, abundance), and was widely spread by popular songs written for laborers and travelers. The first few lines serve as a good example of Arius’ theology:

…And so God Himself, as he really is, is inexpressible to all.
He alone has no equal, no one similar (homoios), and no one of the same glory.
We call him unbegotten, in contrast to him who by nature is begotten.
We praise him as without beginning in contrast to him who has a beginning.
We worship him as timeless, in contrast to him who in time has come to exist.

He who is without beginning made the Son a beginning of created things.
He produced him as a son for himself by begetting him.
He [the son] has none of the distinct characteristics of God’s own being (kat’ hypostasis)
For he is not equal to, nor is he of the same being (homoousios) as him.

In May 325, a council of Christian Bishops was called by Roman Emperor Constantine (the Great) to settle the matter of the nature of the Trinity. The council convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey). This ecumenical council was the first of its kind to attempt to attain consensus in the church on theological issues.

The Council of Nicaea¹⁰ concluded that Jesus (God the Son) was of the same being or the same in essence (homoousios) as God the Father. The same term was later applied to the Holy Spirit. This theology became the cornerstone  of Nicene Christianity and represents one of the most important theological concepts within the Trinitarian doctrinal understanding of God¹¹.

The Council declared Arius a heretic after he refused to sign the formula of faith.Constantine the Great then ordered the death penalty for those who refused to surrender all Arian writings:

In addition, if any writing composed by Arius should be found, it should be handed over to the flames, so that not only will the wickedness of his teaching be obliterated, but nothing will be left even to remind anyone of him. And I hereby make a public order, that if someone should be discovered to have hidden a writing composed by Arius, and not to have immediately brought it forward and destroyed it by fire, his penalty shall be death. As soon as he is discovered in this offence, he shall be submitted for capital punishment… (Edict by Emperor Constantine against the Arians)

On June 19, 325, the council and emperor issued a circular to the churches in and around Alexandria, declaring Arius and two of his supporters, Theonas and Secundus, exiled to Illyricum. Three other supporters, Theognis of Nicaea, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Maris of Chalcedon, bowed to the emperor’s demands and signed the formula of faith¹².

After Arius was exiled and the Council attempted to end the debate, the Arian controversy did not dissipate but flared up almost immediately. Constantine, desiring unity within the church, gradually became more lenient and sought to pacify the conflict between Arians and Trinitarians. He didn’t reject the council or its decrees but ultimately allowed Arius (who had fled to Palestine) and many of his supporters to return home. In 336, the Synod of Jerusalem restored Arius to communion. In 336, Arius collapsed and died while walking through the streets of Constantinople. Some scholars believe he may have been poisoned by opponents.

The Arian controversy did not end with his death. The debate divided the Church for centuries.

 ARK OF THE COVENANT

The apocryphal book of 2 Maccabees 2:1-8, relates that just prior to the last Babylonian invasion and subjugation of Judah (597 BC), Jeremiah hid the Ark:

One finds in the records that Jeremiah the prophet ordered those who were being deported to take some of the fire, as has been told, ² and that the prophet after giving them the law instructed those who were being deported [to Babylon] not to forget the commandments of the Lord, nor to be led astray in their thoughts upon seeing the gold and silver statues and their adornment. ³ And with other similar words he exhorted them that the law should not depart from their hearts. ⁴ It was also in the writing that the prophet, having received an oracle, ordered that the tent and the ark should follow with him, and that he went out to the mountain where Moses had gone up and had seen the inheritance of God. 5 And Jeremiah came and found a cave, and he brought there the tent and the ark and the altar of incense, and he sealed up the entrance. ⁶ Some of those who followed him came up to mark the way, but could not find it. ⁷ When Jeremiah learned of it, he rebuked them and declared: “The place shall be unknown until God gathers his people together again and shows his mercy. ⁸ And then the Lord will disclose these things, and the glory of the Lord and the cloud will appear, as they were shown in the case of Moses, and as Solomon asked that the place should be specially consecrated.”

Jer 3:14-16 relates that, just before the fall of Jerusalem, God instructed the prophet to say:

“Return, faithless people,” declares the LORD, “for I am your husband. I will choose you—one from a town and two from a clan—and bring you to Zion. ¹⁵ Then I will give you shepherds after my own heart, who will lead you with knowledge and understanding.¹⁶ In those days, when your numbers have increased greatly in the land,” declares the LORD, “people will no longer say, ‘The ark of the covenant of the LORD.’ It will never enter their minds or be remembered; it will not be missed, nor will another one be made.”

After seventy years of captivity, the Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem, where, under the guidance of Ezra and Zerubbabel (Books of Ezra and Nehemiah), the Temple was rebuilt, but the Ark was never found again.

 ATONEMENT

Atonement is founded on the realization that humans have a natural propensity to transgress the law¹³. True justice recognizes that a broken law demands a consequence, regardless of who the guilty party is¹⁴. Justice must be blind. It can’t take into consideration social or economic status, extenuating circumstances, or the guilt or innocence for past situations. Justice simply ensures that a punishment is pronounced in proportion to the seriousness of the crime committed.

Justice alone can’t be compassionate or merciful.  It can’t punish one wrongdoer for a crime and allow another who committed the same infraction to go free. There must be built into any truly just system of laws the provision for pardon and mercy, which allows the law to take into consideration extenuating circumstances such as past behavior, the involvement of other individuals, and other factors surrounding the commission of the crime¹⁵.

A pardon exempts someone from punishment for a crime. The pardoning power is vested in law and gives the power to pardon to specific persons and circumstances. Articles of law and constitutions usually spell out where the pardoning power lies. Pardons are typically issued to individuals, but they can also go to groups of people. Decisions about whether to pardon an offender are supposed to factor in the public welfare and whether there’s some unfairness that the courts can’t correct¹⁶.

Mercy, in criminal law, is the partial or total remission of a deserved punishment. When the whole punishment is remitted, it is called a pardon; when only a part of the punishment is remitted, it is frequently called a conditional pardon, clemency, or mercy. Mercy is a term that describes consideration shown by the administrator of the law allowing leniency or unwarranted compassion for a crime or wrongdoing¹⁷.

An atonement allows an innocent party to pay the fine or consequence for a guilty one. Ancient Israel was taught this concept through the sacrifice of animals in payment for personal and community sins. The problem with an animal sacrifice is that it has to be performed over and over again because the sacrifice of an animal provides no incentive for a person to change; it doesn’t lead to repentance. The only sorrow for sin a person would feel is the fact that they lost money on the deal! The whole purpose of animal sacrifice was to teach Israel the concept of love and forgiveness – a lesson lost over the centuries. Isaiah said it best when he cried out in God’s name,

¹¹ “What makes you think I want all your sacrifices?” says the LORD. “I am sick of your burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fattened cattle. I get no pleasure from the blood of bulls and lambs and goats...

¹⁶Wash yourselves and be clean! Get your sins out of my sight. Give up your evil ways. ¹⁷Learn to do good. Seek justice. Help the oppressed. Defend the cause of orphans. Fight for the rights of widows. (Isa 1:11, 16, 17 [NLT])¹⁸

God’s plan of redemption, the process of restoring goodness and unselfishness in a person, can only come through repentance. The repentant heart recognizes wrongs done to others and engenders the deep desire to change and do better¹⁹. This recognition does not come naturally. In fact, it’s foolishness to the natural mind²⁰. Humans think in terms of self-gratification, not self-sacrifice. I’m hungry; I eat. I’m thirsty; I drink. I feel sexual desire; I quench that desire. We humans are in every sense diametrically opposed to the complete and unselfish love of God. Our natural minds can’t comprehend or begin to understand His kind of perfection. Everything in our physical make-up screams out against giving up food and going hungry so that another can eat, giving up shelter and cover so that another person can be warm and protected, and facing the fear of pain and death to save another person’s life. The only way I can understand that kind of love is to be transformed by Love²¹; To be filled by a Spirit and Nature wholly not my own. It’s the Holy Spirit of God that fills me with the desire to be different; to be better. God’s Spirit enables me to do what my flesh makes impossible – self-sacrifice. 

 That brings us back to atonement. The sacrificing of a calf or lamb may satisfy the demands of law, but it doesn’t change me. It can’t bring me to repentance. My attitudes, motives, thought processes, and actions remain unclean, and unclean can’t live in the presence of purity and perfection. I can’t pay the price for law-breaking myself by doing good things. Any moral and upright things I can do are only the good I should do anyway – extra good deeds can’t be stored up to pay for past bad deeds²². The good I do now is only that which is required in the first place. So, I’m stuck with a dilemma – a terrible one. Despite all my best efforts, I’m a mistake-maker; I break things; I hurt others. And there’s no way I can satisfy the demands of law myself except by paying the consequence personally, which is eternal separation from God.

But God, who is the just and impartial administrator of the law, is also a merciful Father. He steps into the middle of my dilemma. My Father answers the demands of law for his child and pays the price for my mistakes himself²³.

This is the Incarnation, the Christian belief that infinite God entered the form of finite man, lived a life of perfection and love, and offered himself as the final and complete sacrifice – Jesus is the atonement for humankind’s sins. In the process, the very essence of his selflessness, his perfect and sacred Spirit, is loosed into the hearts of humankind, sparking the passionate desire to emulate his selfless act to the benefit of others²⁴. The impossible is made possible. Perfection pays the price of imperfection. We are set free from the burden of guilt and shame by having faith in his death in our place, and that realization fills us with the desire to be like Jesus, pure, clean, and clothed in white²⁵.

AUGUSTINE

Augustine’s father was a pagan and his mother a committed Christian who prayed constantly for her son. He gained a basic education in his home city and progressed to studying classical literature. He traveled to Carthage for training in rhetoric.

But his pathway to Christianity was a rugged one. As a youth, he began searching for “truth” in the popular pagan philosophies and cults of his day. By his own admission in the story of his conversion (Confessions), he ran with an undisciplined group of youths and indulged in all manner of immoral pursuits. In his Confessions, Augustine related an incident when he and his young friends broke into a neighbor’s garden and stole some pears. He pondered the incident over and over. Why had they done that? None of them was hungry or poor. Augustine eventually fathered a son out of wedlock, Adeodatus, who died in 390 A.D. He constantly asked himself, “Why did I do such things?” He read that the Apostle Paul struggled with the same questions:

Rom 7:21  So I find this law at work: Although I want to do good, evil is right there with me. 22 For in my inner being I delight in God’s law; 23 but I see another law at work in me, waging war against the law of my mind and making me a prisoner of the law of sin at work within me. 24 What a wretched man I am! Who will rescue me from this body that is subject to death? 25 Thanks be to God, who delivers me through Jesus Christ our Lord! So then, I myself in my mind am a slave to God’s law, but in my sinful nature a slave to the law of sin.

In his hungry pursuit for wisdom, Augustine became a Manichean. Manicheism was founded by the Persian philosopher Mani (216 to 274 A.D.), who taught dualism, a rigid division between good and evil. Like Gnosticism, this religion claimed that secret knowledge gained by only an elite few, was the route to salvation. It attempted to combine the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus of Nazareth²⁸.  

Finally, in 387, Augustine accepted the Christian faith and was baptized by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, Italy. Augustine returned to his birthplace of Thagaste, was ordained a priest, and a few years later was made bishop of the city of Hippo.

When he was bishop of Hippo, Augustine founded monasteries for both men and women. He also set down instructions guiding monks’ and nuns’ behavior. In 1244 a group of monks and hermits banded together in Italy and the Order of St. Augustine was founded based on that rule. Some 270 years later, an Augustinian friar, also a Bible scholar like Augustine, rebelled against many of the policies and doctrines of the Roman Catholic church. His name was Martin Luther, and he became a key figure in the Protestant Reformation²⁹.

Augustine’s struggles and reflections on personal spiritual enlightenment took place during a time that Church councils vigorously condemned existing heresies, many of which resulted in excommunications of bishops and often ended in violence. Augustine’s attempts to present a coherent system based upon Christian adaptations to traditional philosophy and Roman culture focused on individual salvation in light of the evils of this age³⁰.

During the fifth-century CE, the Roman Empire was constantly besieged by invasions from the norther tribes of Goths, Visigoths, and Vandals. Rome was actually overrun and sacked by Alaric I. Non-Christians claimed that it was the fault of Christians for angering the gods. Augustine’s second great opus, On the City of God Against the Pagans (413-426 CE) was his response to these critics. He declared the superiority of Christian philosophy over other schools of thought³¹.

Augustine died in 430 CE, with the Vandals at the gates of Hippo. He lamented the fact that the Vandals were Christians themselves, although Arian heretics. He ordered his monks to protect his library, which was transferred to Europe and beyond. He was canonized as a saint by popular acclamation and declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Boniface VIII in 1298.

BALAAM

2 Peter 2:14-15 and Revelation 2:14 use Balaam as an example of the destructive influence of deceitful Christian teachers who advocate an unhealthy alliance of Christ’s teaching with worldly ways.

BARNABAS, The Epistle of

The apocryphal Acts of Barnabas recounts his missionary tours and his death by martyrdom in Cyprus. A copy of the epistle was discovered in the monastery at Mount Sinai as part of the New Testament manuscript, Codex Sinaiticus³³.  The Epistle focuses on high moral values and metaphorical interpretations of the Old Testament. The letter also vigorously confronts Judaism:

Early Christian writers assumed Barnabas to be the author, but the epistle itself makes no such claim. Tertullian believed the Book of Hebrews was produced by Barnabas, writing:

For there is extant withal an Epistle to the Hebrews under the name of Barnabas—-a man sufficiently accredited by God, as being one whom Paul has stationed next to himself in the uninterrupted observance of abstinence…(De pudicitia [On modesty], 20:2).

Eusebius didn’t believe the Epistle of Barnabas to be an authentic work of the apostle and separated it from the works he considered as true, genuine, and accepted.³⁵

The letter doesn’t quote from any New Testament writings, which leads some scholars to believe its an early work, possibly towards the end of the first century³⁶. They also point to the letter’s discourse on a little king… who shall subdue under one three of the kings, and, … I beheld the fourth beast, wicked and powerful, and more savage than all the beasts of the earth, and how from it sprang up ten horns, and out of them a little budding horn, and how it subdued under one three of the great horns (4:4-5). This seems to point to a date during or immediately after the reign of Nerva (96-8 C.E.), which brought to an end the successful rule of the Flavian dynasty of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian³⁷.

The Epistle of Barnabas declares:

Moreover, He again says, Behold, they who have cast down this temple, even they shall build it up again. It has so happened. For through their going to war, it was destroyed by their enemies; and now: they, as the servants of their enemies, shall rebuild it (chp. 16).

This seems to place the letter after the temple’s destruction in 70 AD but before the Bar Kochba revolt in 132, after which all hope that the Romans would help to rebuild the temple was lost. Moreover, Emperor Hadrian built a Roman temple on the site (c. 135 AD).

CERINTHUS

Moreover, after his baptism, Christ descended upon him in the form of a dove from the Supreme Ruler, and that then he proclaimed the unknown Father, and performed miracles. But at last Christ departed from Jesus, and that then Jesus suffered and rose again, while Christ remained impassible, inasmuch as he was a spiritual being. (Against Heresies, Book 1, Chapter 26:1, written about 170 AD)

Irenaeus also relates this story from Polycarp:

There are also those who heard from [Polycarp] that John, the disciple of the Lord, going to bathe at Ephesus, and perceiving Cerinthus within, rushed out of the bath-house without bathing, exclaiming, “Let us fly, lest even the bath-house fall down, because Cerinthus, the enemy of the truth, is within. (Against Heresies, Book 3, Chapter 3:4)

Eusebius offers further information by quoting Presbyter Caius (c. 210):

But Cerinthus also, by means of revelations which he pretends were written by a great apostle, brings before us marvelous things that he falsely claims were shown him by angels; and he says that after the resurrection, the kingdom of Christ will be set up on earth, and that the flesh dwelling in Jerusalem will again be subject to desires and pleasures. And being an enemy of the Scriptures of God, he asserts, with the purpose of deceiving men, that there is to be a period of a thousand years for marriage festivals. (Church History Book 3, Chapter 28:2)³⁹

According to the Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, Cerinthus’ doctrines were a strange mixture of Gnosticism, Judaism, Chiliasm, and Ebionitism.

• He admitted one Supreme Being, but the world was produced by a distinct and far inferior power.
• He does not identify this Creator or Demiurgos with the Jehovah of the Old Testament.
• Angels, rather than Jehovah, made the world and gave the law.
• These creator-angels were ignorant of the existence of the Supreme God.
• The Jewish law was most sacred, and salvation is obtained by obedience to this law.
•  Cerinthus drew a distinction between Jesus and Christ. Jesus was a mere man, though eminent in holiness. He suffered and died and was raised from the dead, or, as some say Cerinthus taught, He will be raised from the dead at the Last Day, and all men will rise with Him.
• At the moment of baptism, Christ or the Holy Ghost was sent by the Highest God, dwelt in Jesus, and taught him about the Unknown God, things the Angels did not even know.
• This union between Jesus and Christ continues until the Passion when Jesus suffers alone, and Christ returns to heaven. (This is typical of Western Greek thinking, which gave rise to gnostic beliefs that matter and spirit cannot coexist.)
• Cerinthus believed in millennialism, the belief that Christ will dwell on earth for one thousand years before the resurrection and the spiritual kingdom of God in heaven.

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

Clement was well-versed in the Jewish Scriptures and held the exegetical work of Philo of Alexandria (circa 15 BCE–after 41 CE) in high regard. His lesser-known writings, which survive only in fragments, suggest that he also knew pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism. He was a knowledgeable apologist for his branch of Christianity. Through his discussions with figures such as Basilides, Valentinus, Marcion, Carpocrates, and Epiphanes, scholars gain unique insights into the Christian thought of his era⁴².

Some acknowledge Clement as a Church Father, and he is venerated as a saint in various Christian traditions, including Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was honored in Western Catholicism until 1586 when Pope Sixtus V removed his name from Roman Martyrology. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially ceased to venerate Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century. However, he is still occasionally referred to as “Saint Clement of Alexandria” by some authors from both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic traditions⁴³.

CLEMENT OF ROME

Clement of Rome (died around 100 AD) was a bishop of Rome in the late first century and is considered the first of the Apostolic Fathers of the Church. Tertullian claimed that Clement was ordained by the Apostle Peter. Eusebius, in his work “Church History,” refers to Clement as the third bishop of Rome and describes him as a “co-laborer” of Paul. Additionally, Irenaeus, in “Against Heresies,” identifies Clement as the successor to Anacletus (the second bishop of Rome) and as a personal acquaintance of the Apostles. It is likely that he died in exile and may have been martyred.

It is one of the oldest extant Christian documents outside the New Testament and was read in the church at Corinth alongside other epistles, some of which later became part of the Christian canon. This letter is considered the earliest affirmation of the principle of apostolic succession⁴⁵. From the time of Origen, Clement, bishop of Rome, has been identified as the Clement mentioned by Paul in Philippians 4:3, Yes, and I ask you, my true companion, help these women since they have contended at my side in the cause of the gospel, along with Clement and the rest of my co-workers, whose names are in the book of life.

DECIAN PERSECUTION

The Book of Martyrs by John Foxe (first published in 1563) notes that the Decian persecution was the seventh one ordered by Roman emperors. There had been a number of efforts by Rome to quell the rise of the Christian sect, but most of those were somewhat local in nature rather than empire-wide edicts. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), in his History of the Christian Church⁴⁶, describes Decius (Emperor, 249-251) as:

 An earnest and energetic emperor, in whom the old Roman spirit once more awoke, resolved to root out the church as an atheistic and seditious sect, and in the year 250 published an edict to all the governors of the provinces, enjoining return to the pagan state religion under the heaviest penalties. This was the signal for a persecution which, in extent, consistency, and cruelty, exceeded all before it.

In the year 250, Emperor Decian decreed that everyone (except the Jews) must demonstrate their loyalty to the Roman State by sacrificing and burning incense to the traditional gods in the presence of a magistrate. The object of the emperor was not just the destruction of individual groups of believers, but the complete annihilation of the Christian religion itself. Bishops and priests were tortured and executed. Other Christians were given the opportunity to deny Christ. To ensure they abandoned their faith, they were compelled to undergo tests of loyalty to paganism. These tests included offering sacrifices, pouring libations, or burning incense to idols⁴⁷.

A libellus was often signed and witnessed by the officials proving a person had complied.  No original texts of Decius’ edicts have been found, but a number of Libelli papyrus have been discovered and dated to around AD 250⁴⁸.  One found in Egypt reads:

To those in charge of the sacrifices of the village Theadelphia, from Aurelia Bellias, daughter of Peteres, and her daughter Kapinis. We have always been constant in sacrificing to the gods, and now too, in your presence, in accordance with the regulations, I have poured libations and sacrificed and tasted the offerings, and I ask you to certify this for us below. May you continue to prosper. (Second person’s handwriting) We, Aurelius Serenus and Aurelius Hermas, saw you sacrificing. (Third person’s handwriting) I, Hermas, certify. The first year of the Emperor Caesar Gaius Messias Quintus Traianus Decius Pius Felix Augustus, Pauni 27.  certifying that the bearer has sacrificed to the gods.⁴⁹

Schaff recounts how Cyprian of Carthage addressed the concern that many nominal Christians had acquiesced and sacrificed to the gods of the State or illegally obtained certificates stating that they had complied with the government orders. Many thousands of Christians fled to safer areas or simply refused the State’s demand to sacrifice to the Roman gods. Compromisers (the lapsi) were often excommunicated.. One of those who confessed Christ alone and refused to worship the State wrote to Cyprian:

What more glorious and blessed lot can fall to man by the grace of God, than to confess God the Lord amidst tortures and in the face of death itself; to confess Christ the Son of God with lacerated body and with a spirit departing, yet free; and to become fellow sufferers with Christ in the name of Christ?”⁵⁰

DEISM

Generally, Deists held that a certain kind of religious knowledge (sometimes called natural religion) is either inherent in each person or accessible through the exercise of reason, but they denied the validity of religious claims based on revelation or on the specific teachings of any church. Catherine Beyer lists several key elements of Deistic thought⁵²:

• Rejection of prophets: Because God does not desire or need followers to worship or engage in other specific behaviors, there is no reason to think that he speaks through prophets or sends his representatives to live among humanity.
• Rejection of supernatural events: In his wisdom, God created all of the desired motions of the universe during creation. Therefore, there is no need for him to make mid-course corrections by granting visions, performing miracles, and performing other supernatural acts.  
• Rejection of ceremony and ritual: In its early origins, deism rejected what it saw as the artificial pomp of organized religion’s ceremonies and rituals. Deists favor a natural religion that almost resembles primitive monotheism in the freshness and immediacy of its practice. For deists, belief in God is not a matter of faith or suspension of disbelief but a common-sense conclusion based on the evidence of the senses and reason⁵³.

The early champions of deism were usually individuals who felt that the supernatural elements of their religion conflicted with their increasing faith in the power of reason. Notable intellectuals such as John Locke, David Hume, John Leland, Thomas Hobbes, Anthony Collins, Pierre Bayle, and Voltaire, all espoused a deistic perspective of the universe. Many in academia were increasingly opposed to the intolerance and fanaticism that often appear in some churches. They focused on scientific explanations of the world and became skeptical of the supernatural beliefs represented by traditional religion.

American deists included Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, James Madison, and John Adams. The most enthusiastic American Deists were Ethan Allen and Thomas Paine⁵⁴.

Deism played a significant role in challenging traditional religion and shaping rationalist philosophy in Europe and America, influencing Unitarianism, Modernism, and other modern religious movements⁵⁵. (See also Rationalism.)

DIASPORA

The Diaspora (Greek, dispersion) refers to the Jewish communities outside Israel who traditionally considered themselves in exile (However, many Jews no longer think of themselves as being exiles). The Jewish Diaspora began with the exile of Judeans to Babylonia by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC. The majority of Judeans remained in Babylonia even after the resettling of Jerusalem⁵⁶.

Under Hellenistic rulers, large numbers of Jews settled in Alexandria, Egypt. During the Greco-Roman period, Jews settled throughout Asia Minor and southern Europe. Many Jewish prisoners of war were brought to Rome after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. From Italy, Jews migrated to France and Germany, and from there, to England, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe (see Appendix, Ashkenazim)⁵⁷.

Under pressure from Islam, many Jews from North Africa moved westward into the Iberian Peninsula. Expelled by Christian rulers in the 15th century, these Jews, known as Sephardim, resettled in the Netherlands, the Balkans, Turkey, Palestine, and the Americas. In the 19th and 20th centuries, large numbers of central and east European Jews went to North America and, after World War II, to Israel.⁵⁸

DIDACHE

The Didache (di-da-kay), which means “teaching” in Greek, is a valuable source of information about early Christian life and belief. It includes moral precepts, instructions on how to organize Christian communities, and regulations related to liturgical worship. The text contains the oldest recorded Eucharistic prayers, as well as guidelines for baptism, fasting, prayer, and the treatment of bishops, deacons, and prophets. Many early Christians considered the Didache as important as the books of the New Testament, and it was used to instruct new converts.⁵⁹

In 1873 a Greek theologian and scholar, Philotheos Bryennios, (1833? -1914), was working in the library of the monastery of the Jerusalem patriarchate in Istanbul and discovered an ancient manuscript containing the First and Second Epistles of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, a synopsis of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, and the only known manuscript of the Didache⁶¹. The document isn’t dated and isn’t ascribed to an author. The dating of the Didache has been a topic of difficulty and controversy since it first emerged. While there is a consensus for a mid-to late first-century dating (50-70 AD), some argue for a dating as late as the 3rd or 4th century AD⁶².

DOCETISM

This early Christian gnostic heresy held that Jesus Christ was a spirit and only seemed to have a physical body (the Greek word, dokeĩn, which means to seem). The doctrine took various forms:

• Some proponents flatly denied any true humanity in Christ;
• Some admitted his incarnation but not his sufferings, suggesting that he persuaded one of his followers—possibly Judas Iscariot or Simon of Cyrene—to take his place on the cross;
• Others claimed his celestial body was incapable of experiencing human miseries⁶⁶.

This denial of the human reality of Christ stemmed from dualism, a philosophical doctrine that viewed spirit as perfect and matter as evil and, therefore, couldn’t coexist. Docetists concluded that Perfect God could not be associated with imperfect matter. They could not accept that the Word became flesh (John 1:14)⁶⁷.

The theological concept of Docetism posed a challenge for the early church fathers. If Jesus did not have a physical body, he could not have truly died and been resurrected.  If his body was an illusion, then so was the redemption he offered. The hope of the gospel and the salvation Christianity professed was completely based on Jesus’ physical death and resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:17).

It seems that docetic influences were confronted in the New Testament, primarily in the letters of John, but the philosophies weren’t fully developed until the 2nd and 3rd centuries when they became associated with the gnostic heresies. Ignatius and Irenaeus, among others, vigorously opposed the ideas posed by Docetism. The movement was officially condemned at the Council of Chalcedon in 451⁶⁸.

 DOMITIAN

In his work “The Twelve Caesars,” Suetonius suggests that Domitian was not inherently evil, but that greed and a fear of assassination led him to become cruel. Historian Cassius Dio, in his “Roman History,” describes the emperor as bold and quick to anger, treacherous, secretive, and showing affection for only a select few. Domitian was extremely vain and very self-conscious of being bald. As his reign progressed and the pressures of ruling mounted, his paranoia overcame him⁷⁰. In order to fund his luxurious lifestyle, he increased the Jewish tax instituted by his father and confiscated the wealth of senators and wealthy Romans. His paranoia even extended to his wife, Domitia Logina, whom he accused of adultery⁷¹.

The emperor considered himself an absolute ruler and took pride in being referred to as master or god: “dominus et deus.” He even renamed two of the months after himself – Germanicus (September) and Domitianus (October).

To some extent, some of Domitian’s victims were Christians. According to Irenaeus (in his work “Against Heresies,” Book 5, Chapter 30:3), the Book of Revelation was written during the reign of Domitian while the apostle John was a prisoner on Patmos. Eusebius, in his Church History, Book 4, 26:9, quotes Melito, bishop of Sardis (died around 180), as saying:

Nero and Domitian, alone, persuaded by certain calumniators, have wished to slander our doctrine, and from them it has come to pass that the falsehood has been handed down, in consequence of an unreasonable practice which prevails of bringing slanderous accusations against the Christians. 

He also cites Tertullian:

Tertullian also has mentioned Domitian in the following words: Domitian also, who possessed a share of Nero’s cruelty, attempted once to do the same thing that the latter did. But because he had, I suppose, some intelligence, he very soon ceased and even recalled those whom he had banished. (3.20:9)

Domitian was murdered in 96, hacked to death by members of his own household and the senate⁷².

 DONATISM, DONATUS

The Donatist controversy revolved around an administrative rather than theological issue, making it one of the most remarkable schisms in the Church’s history. This led to the existence of two separate Churches in northern Africa, a situation that lasted for centuries⁷³.

Donatism was named for its leader, the theologian Donatus (d. 355).  He and his followers valued martyrdom as the supreme expression of faith in Christ. They believed lapses of faith (even under torture or threat of death) to be inexcusable⁷⁴. Further, they contended that the administering of the sacraments required a priest of pure moral character – only those who had not lapsed under persecution.

The controversy arose in Carthage in 311 AD when three bishops consecrated a new prelate. One of the three bishops involved in the anointing was accused of being a traitor, that is, one of the ministers who had been guilty of handing over copies of the Bible to be destroyed by the Roman authorities under emperor Diocletian. An opposition group of 70 bishops, led by the primate of Numidia, formed itself into a synod at Carthage and declared the consecration of the new bishop invalid. They held that the church must exclude from its membership persons guilty of serious sin and that no sacrament could rightly be performed by a traitor⁷⁵.

Constantine at first attempted to suppress the Donatists by force, but in 321, he adopted a policy of tolerance. The policy was reversed later by his youngest son and heir to the throne, Constans I, who renewed the suppression of the Donatist sect⁷⁷.

In 411, a debate between the Donatist and Catholic bishops was held at Carthage to settle the dispute once and for all. The outcome denounced the Donatists. As a result, in 414, they were deprived of all civil rights, and in the following year, their assemblies were banned under penalty of death. The movement then began to decline but managed to survive until the Moorish conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries⁷⁸.

 EPHESUS

Main Street ran from the harbor to the theater, and on the way, they would pass the gymnasium, public baths, and library.

Much of Ephesus’s ancient history is somewhat hazy. In the seventh century B.C. the city was ruled by Lydian Kings and eventually became a commercial center. It was also the birthplace of the philosopher Heraclitus⁸¹.

The Lydian King Croesus, who ruled from 560 B.C. to 547 B.C., funded the rebuilding of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Artemis was the goddess of the hunt, fertility, and animals in the wild. It was over this revered goddess that the near riot occurred when Paul preached against paganism there (Acts 19). Modern-day excavations have revealed that three smaller Artemis temples preceded the Croesus temple⁸².

In 356 B.C., a distraught man named Herostratus burned the Temple, which the city quickly rebuilt on an even grander scale. It was estimated to be four times larger than the Parthenon and became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient World⁸³. In 262 AD the marvel was destroyed by the invading Goths and never rebuilt. Some of the ruins remain today, and artifacts from the site can be found in the British Museum, including a column with Croesus’s signature⁸⁴.

ESSENES

As disdain for what they considered to be the corruption of the Pharisees and Sadducees grew, a third sect emerged: the Essenes. This sect believed that the other groups had corrupted the city and the Temple. As a result, they left Jerusalem and chose to live a monastic lifestyle in the desert. The Essenes adopted strict dietary laws and committed themselves to a life of celibacy. It is believed that the group grew out of the conflicts of the Maccabean age. Like the Pharisees, they stressed strict legal observance, but they considered the temple priesthood corrupt and rejected much of the temple ritual and sacrificial system. However, unlike the Pharisees and Sadducees, the Essenes were never mentioned in the Bible, .

A 2013 study conducted by Eyal Regev from Bar-Ilan University sought to determine whether Khirbet Qumran was home to the Essene sect of Jews. The study examined the architectural layout of Qumran and applied a technique called “access analysis.” This method was used to map the site’s spatial organization in order to reveal the social ideology of the Essenes associated with Qumran⁸⁶.

Several ancient writers, including Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder, mention the Essenes. Pliny estimated the group’s population to be around 4,000 men. It’s important to note that the name “Essenes” was not chosen by the group itself but rather assigned by scholars and writers. The Qumran community referred to themselves as the “Sons of Zadok,” “Men of the Community,” “Members of the Covenant,” and “Sons of Light.” The etymology of the term “Essenes” is debated, with interpretations suggesting it may mean “The Modest Ones,” “The Silent Ones,” or possibly “Pious.”⁸⁷

Because the Essenes believed they were the true remnant of Israel, they separated themselves from mainstream Judaism, dedicating their lives to personal purity, preparing themselves for an eventual apocalyptic battle between the “Sons of Light” and the “Sons of Darkness.”⁸⁸

Their writings mention the “Teacher of righteousness,” and they anticipated the arrival of two, and possibly three, Messiahs. Some scholars have explored possible connections between the beliefs of the Qumran community and the rise of Christianity. Some have suggested that the “Teacher of Righteousness” could be seen as a prototype for Jesus, and there are claims that both John the Baptist and Jesus may have been associated with the Essene sect. However, these similarities are largely speculative, as the Essenes are not mentioned in the Scriptures. While their ascetic lifestyle can be compared to John the Baptist’s time in the desert, as recorded in Matthew 3, these comparisons do not provide strong evidence for a direct connection⁸⁹.

Like the Sadducees, the Essene community faded from history with the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70.

EUSEBIUS

Eusebius of Caesarea (260?-340?), (also known as Eusebius Pamphili) was a Christian historian, critical religious scholar, and orator. He became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima in 314 AD and served as court bishop to Constantine I (306-337 AD). His writings include Preparation for the Gospel, On Discrepancies Between the Gospels, Ecclesiastical History, and Life of Constantine, for which he is known as the father of Christian history.

After the martyrdom of Pamphilus, Eusebius left Caesarea for Tyre. He subsequently fled Tyre during the persecutions of Christians at the beginning of the 4th century, presumably only to be imprisoned on his arrival in Egypt. After 310, the persecutions ceased, and he was released and was appointed Bishop of Caesarea (c. 314).

In 325, Emperor Constantine convened a council of Church bishops and leaders at Nicaea, a city in northwestern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), primarily to settle the theological issue of the relationship of Christ to God. Eusebius delivered the opening address and was made the leader of the Semi-Arians⁹¹, the moderate party, who were averse to discussing the nature of the Trinity and preferred the simple language of the Scriptures to the subtleties of metaphysical distinctions. At Nicaea, he accepted the position taken by Athanasius, although he showed Arian leanings at the synods of Antioch (324) and Tyre (335)⁹².

Eusebius enjoyed high favor with Constantine the Great, the emperor of Rome, and was one of the most learned men of his time. In addition to his historical writings, Eusebius created the Eusebian Canons, which are a system of cross-references to the Gospels and are used in many biblical manuscripts⁹³.

GEMATRIA

Gematria is a numerological system by which Hebrew letters correspond to numbers. This system, developed by practitioners of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism), derived from Greek influence and became a tool for interpreting biblical texts⁹⁴.

In Gematria, each Hebrew letter is represented by a number (for example, aleph = 1, bet = 2, etc.). One can then calculate the numerical value of a word by adding together the values of each letter in it. In biblical interpretation, some people use the numerical value of words to make arguments. If a word’s numerical value is the same as another word, interpreters might think there is a connection between the two words and the verses they appear in, and use this to draw larger conclusions⁹⁵.

 GNOSTICISM

Gnosis is the Greek word for knowledge. Gnostics believed that the way to a relationship with the Creator was through the accumulation of “secret knowledge” pertaining to God and other spiritual mysteries. These mystical secrets could only be attained by an elite chosen few⁹⁶.

Man found himself fallen from a pure spiritual state to one of corruption. Gnostic teachers were then needed to provide gnosis, or secret knowledge, about the mysteries of this spiritual world. These took the form of myths, similar to that of the Greek and Roman myths concerning the origins of their gods and heroes⁹⁸.

To gnostics, the true Jesus, who was a pure and unspoiled spirit being, was not on the cross with the physical Jesus but escaped before the corruption of death. Therefore, Christ is neither God nor man and did not actually die on the cross but only seemed to be human. They maintained there was no resurrection and believed that only those persons who were spiritual at birth or had the secret knowledge passed down by the apostles and other specially gifted teachers could be saved.

By the second century AD, many gnostic-Christian sects had formed, mostly along the eastern edge of the Mediterranean within the Roman Empire. Some gnostics worked within established Christian groups and greatly influenced beliefs from within. Others formed separate communities. Still others were solitary practitioners⁹⁹. One of the greatest Christian supporters of the doctrine was Valentinus, who died in Alexandria about 160 A.D. He freely mixed Christian doctrine with Greek and oriental mysticism¹⁰⁰. 

One of the first Church Fathers to write extensively on the Gnostic heresy was Irenaeus (Against Heresies). He wrote at great length to defend orthodox Christianity against what he considered to be a dangerous plague infecting the Church. His writings offer modern readers a first-person insight into both the doctrines and myths preached by first-century Gnostic believers and the orthodox beliefs of the early Church.

As mainline Christianity grew in strength and organization, Gnostic sects came under increasing pressure, oppression, and persecution. They had almost disappeared by the sixth century. The only group to have survived continuously from the first century into modern times is the Mandaean sect of Iraq and Iran. This group has about 15,000 members (one source says 1,500) and can trace its history continuously back to the original Gnostic movement¹⁰¹.

Gnosticism is not directly alluded to in the New Testament, except possibly in 1 Tim 6:20, where Paul warns Timothy:

Guard what has been entrusted to your care. Turn away from godless chatter and the opposing ideas of what is falsely called knowledge [gnosis].

The difficulty in dealing with the Gnostic phenomenon is that it was not a standardized system of either religion or philosophy. It embraced a wide variety of sects holding differing opinions, all drawn from many sources. James Orr writes:

The infinitely varied shapes assumed by the systems render it almost impossible to classify them, or even to give an account of their leading ideas, which shall not be open to objection. We might as well try to classify the products of a tropical jungle, or the shapes and hues of the sunset clouds, which change under our view as we look at them¹⁰².

The intellectual extremes of Gnostic philosophies eroded the pure and simple message of the Gospels, turning them into exercises of myth and legend. Instead of the wondrous message of grace and salvation provided through Jesus, the good news became twisted into unanswerable queries concerning the origin of God and sin. Instead of a salvation gained through faith, redemption was something to be inherited through the secret answers to mysterious questions – gnosis – contained in mystic writings in the possession of true believers.

GOG, MAGOG

The names Gog and Magog appear in the Hebrew Bible, Christian Bible, and Quran and describe individuals, tribes, or lands. The prophet Ezekiel writes of Gog as the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal, and Magog is his land (Ezek 38:2). In Genesis 10:2, Magog is listed as one of the sons of Japheth. Centuries later, Jewish tradition changed Ezekiel’s phrase, “Gog from Magog,” into “Gog and Magog.”¹⁰⁵

 Jewish eschatology viewed Gog and Magog as enemies to be defeated by the Messiah, which would usher in the Messianic Age, while the Book of Revelation sees them as nations that align themselves with Satan against God at the end of the millennium (Rev 20)¹⁰⁶.

George Smith (26 March 1840 – 19 August 1876), a pioneering English Assyriologist, thought that a certain chief of the Saka (Scythians), named Gaagi, was the name rendered as Gog. The sons of this Gaagi are mentioned in connection with Birighudri, a chief of Madai (Medes). Josephus also identifies Magog with the Scythians (Antiquities, 1:6).

The memory of the Scythian invasions was distressing for the nations in Asia. Consequently, the names of these northern tribes came to symbolize the great and undefined enemies that would later threaten the Messiah’s kingdom or wage war against the true Israel of God. This idea is evident in Ezekiel’s language found in Ezekiel 38:17.

The apostle John (Rev 20) uses Gog and Magog as typical names for the great hosts of nations who would attack and persecute the children of the Lord, much like the images of Babylon and Egypt.

HADES

This state of death holds the hope of resurrection in verses such as Job 14:13, Acts 2:31, and Rev 20:13.

HELL

While the Greek word hades means “unseen” or “the place of departed souls,” the word hell is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Gehenna and refers to a valley on the southwest side of Jerusalem called the Valley of the Son of Hinnom. The grim history of this area dates back to ancient Israel when some errant Israelites joined in the worship of the Ammonite god Moloch and sacrificed children on his altar located in that valley. The Hebrew word Topeth means “a place of burning (cremation)”¹⁰⁷:

The New Testament mentions the Valley of Gehenna several times, which is believed to be synonymous with hell.¹⁰⁹. It’s possible that when Jesus used this phrase, he was not only referring to the final judgment for those who choose sin over righteousness but also lamenting the lost state of those who reject his teachings. It could be seen as an illustration of wasted lives and dead works.

Matt 23:33 “You snakes! You brood of vipers! How will you escape being condemned to hell?

Matt 5:29 If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell.

HEYLEL (Lucifer)

The ancients believed a great mountain was the home of the gods, and was thought to be in the north because that was the point around which the constellations seemed to rotate. The myth relates how Heylel ¹¹⁰(Heb: Shining one; Latin: Lucifer) the morning star (Venus) tries to climb the northern ramparts of the gods to make himself king of heaven. He fails and is driven from the night sky by the sun¹¹¹.

The Old Testament writers give this myth two different historical interpretations. In Isa 14:12-14, the prophet gives the king of Babylon the part of Heylel trying to usurp the Lordship of God. In the other, Ezek 28:12-16, the part is played by the king of Tyre. It is important to note that Ezekiel’s prophecy identifies the holy mountain of God with Eden, the garden of God. It also provides a prophetic echo of the precious stones John sees as he views the Holy City in Rev 21¹¹².

Psalm 48:2 describes Mount Zion as the city of the Great King. This symbolic mountain continued to play a part in the intertestamental literature. 1 Enoch relates a vision of a mountain that is both God’s throne and the garden where the Tree of Life is found.

HIPPOLYTUS

Pope Damasus (c.305-384) composed the inscription over the grave of Hippolytus, stating that he was initially part of the Novatian schism as a presbyter, but before his death, he urged his followers to reconcile with the Catholic Church.

IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH

Ignatius (martyred c. 117) was one of the Apostolic Fathers, the generation of church leaders who ministered after the original twelve. He was the third Bishop and Patriarch of Antioch and possibly a student of John the Apostle. The Roman authorities arrested him and sentenced him to die in the Colosseum, hoping his death would discourage Christianity from spreading.

Ignatius is the first, outside the New Testament writers, to stress the Virgin Birth. In his letter to the Ephesians, chapter 19, he writes:

And from the prince of this world were hidden Mary‘s virginity and her childbearing, in like manner also the death of the Lord.

He seems to take for granted the doctrine of the Trinity (the relationship between Jesus, the Holy Spirit, and God), a topic hotly debated during the First Council of Nicaea in 325:

There is one Physician of flesh and spirit, begotten and unbegotten, God in man, true life in death, son of Mary and son of God, first suffering and then beyond suffering, Jesus Christ our Lord. (Letter to the Ephesians)

In the fourth chapter of his letter to the Philadelphians, Ignatius addresses the Eucharist  (sacrament of the Lord’s Supper) in such phrases as It is the flesh of Christ… the gift of God… the medicine of immortality… and he repeatedly emphasizes the loyalty and obedience due the bishop as the transmitter of true apostolic tradition, and the necessity of unity and peace.

In Chapter 8 of his letter to the church of Smyrna, the term “the Catholic (Universal) Church” appears for the first time in Christian writings.

…even as wheresoever Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.

In his History of the Church, Book 2, Chapter 3:22, Eusebius records that Ignatius succeeded Evodius, who died around AD 67. According to Theodoret (Dial. Immutab., I, iv, 33a), Peter himself appointed Ignatius to be Bishop of Antioch. Ignatius referred to himself as Theophorus (God-Bearer) in his letter to Polycarp. Catholic tradition holds that he was one of the children Jesus took into his arms and blessed (Matthew 19:13-15; Mark 10:13-16; Luke 18:15,16). However, there is no biblical reference that verifies this tradition¹¹⁵.

IRENAEUS

Against Heresies is a five-volume work directed against the gnostic heresy infecting the young Church, and was the main source of information about Gnosticism until the discovery of the Naj‘ Hammâdî library in 1945¹¹⁷.

In the second work, Proof of the Apostolic Preaching, Irenaeus confirms the Christian faith by expounding on Old Testament prophecies. Only the mention of some of his other texts exists, most preserved in the works of later writers.

When Victor I¹¹⁸, excommunicated the Christians of Asia Minor (c. 190) for observing Easter on the date of the Jewish Passover, Irenaeus sent him a letter of rebuke in the name of the churches of Gaul, arguing that variations of practice and differences of opinion had not traditionally led to the severing of communion.

Nothing is known of the date of his death, which must have occurred at the end of the second or the beginning of the third century. There is some later testimony that he died a martyr under Septimus Severus¹¹⁹. Jerome mentions Irenaeus as a martyr, but no other early author gives him that title. The next time Irenaeus’s death was mentioned was in writing by Gregory of Tours at the end of the 6th century. This tradition cannot be supported by evidence from early sources, and it has been generally rejected by the scholarly community¹²⁰.

JEROME

In his letters, he describes himself as the Prodigal Son, who was “befouled with the squalor of every kind of sin,” having fallen “on the slippery path of youth.” As an older man, he praised virginity because he admired what he had lost¹²³. As wealthy young men typically did, Jerome likely completed his formal education around age 20. He traveled to Trier in modern-day Germany with his friend Bonosus, where he mentions living by the Rhine river and copying well-known books for his library¹²⁴. Some of his close friends became monks, which inspired Jerome to take up that solitary life. Jerome traveled to the Syrian desert of Chalcis, near Antioch, where many solitary monks were known to reside. In his letters, he mentions that it was during this time that he began to learn Hebrew from a local Jewish Christian. During this period, Jerome could read and copy a Gospel written in Hebrew. He later translated it into Greek, which provided him with valuable practice in translation that would prove useful in his future work¹²⁵.

He lived for a time as a hermit before becoming a priest. He eventually served as the secretary to Pope Damasus I and, around the year 389, established a monastery in Bethlehem. His extensive writings on the Bible, asceticism, monastic life, and theology had a profound impact on the early Middle Ages. He is especially known for his Latin translation of the Bible, known as the Vulgate, and has been recognized as a doctor of the Church¹²⁶.

JOHN, Apostle

Most of what is known about the apostle John comes from the pages of the four gospels. He and his older brother James were sons of Zebedee¹²⁷ and were fishermen. He was one of the original twelve disciples of Jesus and was eventually called to be an Apostle¹²⁸. Some scholars point to Matt 27:56, and Mark 15:40 as evidence that John was also the first cousin of Jesus.

The order of the names and the similarity of the language in the accounts lead some to believe that Jesus’ mother’s sister is Salome, the wife of Zebedee and the mother of James and John.

The two brothers were young and enthusiastic. At one point, they asked Jesus if they should call down fire from Heaven to consume the unbelieving. Jesus responded by calling them sons of thunder¹²⁹.

The Early Church Fathers almost universally acknowledge John as the disciple whom Jesus loved (John 21:20-24), the author of the Gospel of John, the epistles bearing his name, and the Book of Revelation. It is generally believed these books were all written after John was an old man living in Ephesus. The letter 1 John was not addressed to anyone in particular but was written more as a sermon. The second epistle was written to an unnamed elect lady (2 John 1:1), and the third to a man named Gaius (3 John 1:1).

The vision, later recorded as the Book of Revelation, was received by John while he was a prisoner on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus¹³³.

Very little is known about John’s later life and death. Eusebius records Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus (c. 190), as saying that John’s tomb was at Ephesus, and added that he “was a priest, wearing the sacerdotal plate, both martyr and teacher.”¹³⁴

It was at this time that the apostle John returned from his banishment in the island [Patmos] and took up his abode at Ephesus, according to an ancient Christian tradition¹³⁵.

Those same traditions claim that John lived to an old age and died in Ephesus sometime after AD 98. Of the two sites claiming to be the location of John’s tomb, the one on the southern slope of Ayosolug Hill in Ephesus eventually achieved official recognition. It became a shrine in the 4th century (the Basilica of Saint John).

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS

Josephus (AD 37 or 38 – circa 101) was born in Jerusalem and came from royal and priestly lineage. His original name was Joseph Ben Matthias, and he was well-educated and worldly. He was a member of the Pharisee sect, and as a Jewish historian and public figure, he made friends at the court of Emperor Nero before the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66¹³⁶.

As commander, Josephus defended the fortress of Jotapata for forty-seven days before surrendering. He prophesied (as it turned out, rightly) that his captor, Vespasian, would become emperor, and the general decided to keep Josephus with him rather than send him to Rome as a prisoner¹³⁷.

While a prisoner of Vespasian, Josephus witnessed the conquest of Galilee and Judea. Upon his release, he took on Vespasian’s family name, Flavius. He was present during the siege of Jerusalem in 70, alongside Vespasian’s son Titus. Josephus received support from Titus and later Domitian and focused on his writing until his death in Rome. His notable works include The Jewish War (in 7 books), in which he aimed to persuade his people and others that resisting the might of Rome would lead to their destruction¹³⁸.

Jewish Antiquities consists of 20 books and provides a history of the Jews from the time of creation to AD 66. It eloquently illustrates how the Jewish people prospered under the law of God. Josephus also wrote an autobiography titled “Life,” as well as “Against Apion,” which serves as a rebuttal to the accusations made against the Jews by the anti-Semitic Greek grammarian Apion and others who shared his views. Josephus’ defense against Apion is highly valuable as it includes quotations from writings on Jewish history that are no longer available¹³⁹.

JUDAS MACCABEUS (died 160 B.C.)

Judas was the third son of Mattathias, a Hasmonean priest of Modin, who began a rebellion against the Seleucid Empire ruled by Antiochus IV, “Epiphanes” (167–160 BCE). Judas received the added name Maccabeus, generally believed to mean The Hammer because of the terrific blows dealt by his small guerrilla bands of Jewish patriots against the professional armies sent by Antiochus IV to Judea. It was Antiochus’ intent to destroy Jewish culture and religion and replace it with all things Hellenistic, including the worship of the Greek gods. This Maccabean rebellion marked the first recorded war for religious freedom¹⁴⁰.

JUSTIN MARTYR

Justin Martyr, (100?-165?), philosopher, theologian, and one of the earliest apologists of the Christian church, sought to reconcile Christian doctrine and pagan culture¹⁴¹. He was born in Flavia Neapolis (now Nâbulus, West Bank), a Roman city built on the site of the ancient Shechem, in Samaria. His parents were pagans. As a young man, Justin devoted himself to the study of Greek philosophy, notably the writings of Plato and the Stoic philosophers. He first encountered Christianity in Ephesus, and after his conversion, he went to Rome, where he established a school. He died in Rome as a martyr during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius¹⁴².

In Justin’s view, Christianity was the final revelation toward which Greco-Roman philosophy had gradually been moving. He was the first writer of the early church to introduce philosophical terminology into the discussion of Christian teachings¹⁴⁴. His works are valuable for the information they give about the 2nd-century Christian church.

LAODICEA

Laodicea was a city noted for its commercial, manufacturing, and educational institutions. It was located near the river Lycos and close to the heart of the Angora goat country. Fine cloth and carpets were manufactured from the glossy black Angora wool, and the products were greatly sought after in the ancient world. Laodicea ad Mare (modern Latakia, Syria) was a major seaport¹⁴⁶.

The city had a huge wall for protection and was renowned for its three large theaters. One of Its medical schools specialized in eye diseases and had developed Phrygian powder used in the making of an eye salve. It was a city proud of its heritage and accomplishments, and at one time refused the customary imperial aid to restore the damage caused by an earthquake in A.D. 60¹⁴⁷.

Laodicea was originally called Diospolis, City of Zeus, and afterward Rhodas¹⁴⁸, and according to Strabo¹⁴⁹ it was on a major road. The city’s water was supplied by an aqueduct, which provided a continual flow from a series of hot springs six miles away at Denizli.

LUCIAN OF SAMOSATA

Lucian (c. 120-c.180 AD) was a Greek writer and orator famed for his development of satiric dialogue. He was born in Samosata (now Samsat, Turkey) and, early in his life, devoted himself to the study of rhetoric and philosophy¹⁵⁰. He traveled throughout the Roman Empire as a lecturer and orator and then settled in Athens, where he turned to writing dialogues.

His fantastic tale, True History, is a parody of the fictions put forward as facts by early poets and historians. This work includes a journey to the moon and adventures inside the belly of a huge sea monster. As a result, it is considered a precursor to works such as Pantagruel by the 16th-century French satirist François Rabelais and Gulliver’s Travels by the 18th-century English satirist Jonathan Swift.”¹⁵²

LUCIFER (Son of the Morning Star [seeIsa 14:12-23])

Surprisingly, the Bible does not consider Satan and Lucifer to be two names for the same being. While Satan is mentioned throughout the Bible, Lucifer is mentioned only once, in Isaiah 14:12:

Catherine Beyer observes that throughout history, kings have taken on a variety of monikers, and Morning Star was one of Nebuchadnezzar’s. She writes:

The planet Venus is commonly called the morning star. In Latin, the morning star Venus was sometimes referred to as Lucifer, literally “bringer of light.” This is how the word originally entered the Bible, and it was popularized in English by the King James Bible¹⁵⁴.

The Hebrew word Satan, (saw-tawn’), means an opponent, and the arch-enemy of good (Strong’s H7854):

Zech 3:1-2 Then he showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the LORD, and Satan standing at his right side to accuse him. 2 The LORD said to Satan, “The LORD rebuke you, Satan! The LORD, who has chosen Jerusalem, rebuke you! Is not this man a burning stick snatched from the fire?”

In Greek, Satanas (sa-ta-nas’) means the Adversary-Accuser (Strong’s G4567):

Matt 4:10 Jesus said to him, “Away from me, Satan! For it is written: ‘Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only.’ ”

MAXIMINUS

Gordian was killed, and the senate responded by proclaiming two new emperors, Pupienus and Balbinus. Maximinus had descended into Italy to halt the revolt, but his army was delayed by stubborn resistance at Aquileia. The army lost confidence in him and murdered him and his son in the spring 238¹⁵⁶.

Eusebius, in his History of the Church, writes:

Maximinus Caesar, having come at that time into the government, as if to manifest to all the evidences of his reborn enmity against God and of his impiety, armed himself for persecution against us [Christians] more vigorously than his predecessors. (Book 8, 4:1)

In Books 8-9, Eusebius reports that under Maximinus’ rule, believers were beheaded, tortured terribly, burned alive, and flayed.

MIDRASH

Midrash (Hebrew darash, meaning, interpretation), is a term applied to Jewish expository and exegetical writings on the Scriptures¹⁵⁷:

These writings consist of the interpretations by different rabbis of the laws and customs set forth in the Old Testament. The earliest elements of the Midrashic writings appear to have been produced before 100 BC¹⁵⁹.

The material contained in the Midrash is divided into three groups; the abstract Halakah, consisting of the traditional law; the Halakic Midrash, a deduction of the traditional law from the written law; and the Haggadic Midrash (see Haggada), consisting of legends, sermons, and interpretations of the narrative parts of the Bible and concerning ethics and theology rather than law. The forms and styles of these writings range from parables to sermons to codifications of law¹⁶⁰.

MILLENNIUM, MILLENNIALISM (One thousand years)

Nested in the midst of Revelation’s symbolic images and numbers is the concept of the millennium – a one-thousand-year golden age of peace and healing. The word millennium is derived from the Latin mille, meaning thousand, and annus, which means years. The term millennium was also once known as chiliasm, from the Greek, chilias (Strong’s 5505), meaning thousand. Revelation Chapter 20 is the only place in the entire Bible where this thousand-year era is mentioned.

Even beyond the interpretation of the number 666 or the timing of the Second Coming, the description in the twentieth chapter of a wondrous age presided over by Christ has been vigorously debated. Although the thousand-year reign is mentioned specifically only in Revelation, the concept of a spiritual Golden Age did not originate with Christianity. It can be found in Old Testament Jewish hopes concerning the coming Messiah. For example:

Ps 72:1-8 Endow the king with your justice, O God, the royal son with your righteousness. 2 May he judge your people in righteousness, your afflicted ones with justice. 3 May the mountains bring prosperity to the people, the hills the fruit of righteousness. 4 May he defend the afflicted among the people and save the children of the needy; may he crush the oppressor. 5 May he endure as long as the sun, as long as the moon, through all generations. 6 May he be like rain falling on a mown field, like showers watering the earth. 7 In his days may the righteous flourish and prosperity abound till the moon is no more. 8 May he rule from sea to sea and from the River to the ends of the earth.

Ps 110:1-7 The LORD says to my lord: “Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.” 2 The LORD will extend your mighty scepter from Zion, saying, “Rule in the midst of your enemies!” 3 Your troops will be willing on your day of battle. Arrayed in holy splendor, your young men will come to you like dew from the morning’s womb. 4 The LORD has sworn and will not change his mind: “You are a priest forever, in the order of Melchizedek.” 5 The Lord is at your right hand; he will crush kings on the day of his wrath. 6 He will judge the nations, heaping up the dead and crushing the rulers of the whole earth. 7 He will drink from a brook along the way, and so he will lift his head high.

Isa 11:6 [ESV] The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the young goat, and the calf and the lion and the fattened calf together; and a little child shall lead them.  7 The cow and the bear shall graze; their young shall lie down together; and the lion shall eat straw like the ox.  8 The nursing child shall play over the hole of the cobra, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adder’s den.  9 They shall not hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain; for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the LORD as the waters cover the sea.

Isa 2:4 [ESV] He shall judge between the nations, and shall decide disputes for many peoples; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war anymore.

(Others include Isa. 2:1-4; 11:1-11; Ezek. 34; Dan. 2:44; 7:14; 7:27)

In his Mishneh Torah, Maimonides¹⁶¹ describes the Messianic Era, writing:

           And at that time there will be no hunger or war, no jealousy or rivalry. For the good will be plentiful, and all delicacies available as dust. The entire occupation of the world will be only to know God… the people Israel will be of great wisdom; they will perceive the esoteric truths and comprehend their Creator’s wisdom as is the capacity of man. As it is written (Isaiah 11:9): “For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of God, as the waters cover the sea.”¹⁶²

Another statement from the time of the rabbis describes the era leading up to the Messiah in the darkest terms of societal corruption:

In the footsteps of the Messiah, arrogance [chutzpah] will increase; prices will rise; grapes will be abundant but wine will be costly; the government will turn into heresy; and there will be no reproach. The meeting place [of scholars] will become a bordello; the Galilee will be destroyed; the highland will lie desolate; the border people will wander from city to city and none will show them compassion; the wisdom of authors will stink; sin‑fearing people will be detested; truth will be missing; young men will humiliate the elderly; the elderly will stand while the young sit; sons will revile their fathers; daughters will strike their mothers, brides will strike their mothers‑in‑law; and a man’s enemies will take over his house. The face of the generation is like the face of a dog! Sons have no shame in front of their fathers; and on whom can one depend? Only upon our father in heaven (Sotah 9:15).

The Talmud, Sanhedrin 97b, reads:

Rav Ḥanan bar Taḥlifa sent a message to Rav Yosef: I found one man, and in his hand there was one scroll written in Ashurit script and in the sacred tongue, Hebrew. I said to him: From where did this scroll come into your possession? He said to me: I was hired to serve in the Roman army and I found the scroll among the Roman archives. It was clear that the scroll was written by Jews, not Romans. And it is written in the scroll: After 4,291 years have elapsed from the creation of the world, the world will end; during those years there will be the wars of the sea monsters between the leviathan and the animals, and among those years there will be the wars of Gog and Magog and the remaining years of the messianic period. Then the world will be destroyed. And the Holy One, Blessed be He, will renew His world only after the passage of seven thousand years. Rav Aḥa, son of Rava, says that it was stated: After the passage of five thousand years.

According to the Epistle of Barnabas, belief in a millennium had its origin in a combination of Genesis 2:2 and Psalm 90:4. Here, each of the seven days of creation becomes one thousand years, ending with the messianic Sabbath and succeeded by the timeless new world of the eternal eighth day:

The Epistle of Barnabas, Chapter 15 Further also, it is written concerning the Sabbath in the Decalogue which [the Lord] spoke, face to face, to Moses on Mount Sinai, “And sanctify ye the Sabbath of the Lord with clean hands and a pure heart.” And He says in another place, “If my sons keep the Sabbath, then will I cause my mercy to rest upon them.” The Sabbath is mentioned at the beginning of the creation [thus]: “And God made in six days the works of His hands, and made an end on the seventh day, and rested on it, and sanctified it.” Attend, my children, to the meaning of this expression, “He finished in six days.” This implieth that the Lord will finish all things in six thousand years, for a day is with Him a thousand years. And He Himself testifieth, saying, “Behold, today will be as a thousand years.” Therefore, my children, in six days, that is, in six thousand years, all things will be finished. “And He rested on the seventh day.” This meaneth: when His Son, coming [again], shall destroy the time of the wicked man, and judge the ungodly, and change the sun, and the moon, and the stars, then shall He truly rest on the seventh day.

Gen 2:2 By the seventh day, God had finished the work he had been doing, so on the seventh day, he rested from all his work.

Psa 90:4 For a thousand years in your sight are like a day that has just gone by, or like a watch in the night.

The apocryphal Book of Baruch held that it would also be a time of material plenty. 

2 Bar 29:5-6 The earth also shall yield its fruit ten thousand-fold, and on each vine there shall be a thousand branches, and each branch shall produce a thousand clusters, and each cluster shall produce a thousand grapes, and each grape a cor (120 gallons) of wine”

2 Bar 73 1 And it will happen that after He has brought down everything which is in the world, and has sat down in eternal shalom on the throne of the Kingdom, and then joy will be revealed, and rest will appear. 2  And then health will descend in dew, and illness will vanish, and fear and tribulation and lamentation will pass away from among men, and joy will encompass the earth.

3 And nobody will again die untimely, nor will any adversity take place suddenly. 4  Unjust judgment, condemnations, contentions, revenge, blood, passions, zeal, hate, and all such things will go into condemnation since they will be uprooted. 5  For these are the things that have filled this earth with evils, and because of them, life of men came in yet greater confusion. 6  And the wild beasts will come from the wood and serve men, and the asps and dragons will come out of their holes to subject themselves to a child. 7  And women will no longer have pain when they bear, nor will they be tormented when they yield the fruits of their womb.

The Apocalypse of Elijah, written approximately 261 A.D., greatly resembles John’s Revelation but has the age of the Messiah lasting only forty years. In other Jewish writings, such as the Similitudes of Enoch, there is no intervening earthly kingdom before the transformation of heaven and earth.

There is no trace of a belief in the millennium in any Christian writer other than John. Matthew proclaims the complete victory of the righteous, and Paul speaks of the reign of Christ continuing until all his enemies are in subjection to him:

Mat 13:41 The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. 42 They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. 43 Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father. He who has ears, let him hear.

1 Cor 15:21 For since death came through a man, the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man. 22 For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive. 23 But each in his own turn: Christ, the firstfruits; then, when he comes, those who belong to him. 24 Then the end will come, when he hands over the kingdom to God the Father after he has destroyed all dominion, authority and power. 25 For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. 26 The last enemy to be destroyed is death.

Scholars would be hard-pressed to prove that the concept of the millennium was so well known in John’s day that he had no choice but to include it in his revelation to the Churches. Just as the number seven represents completeness in quality and spiritual perfection, so the number ten denotes fullness of quantity. Multiples of ten symbolize many-ness or the idea of number-lessness. The Psalmist could then write, for every animal of the forest is mine, and the cattle on a thousand hills [Psa 50:10], expressing that all things everywhere belong to God. Thus, a thousand years represents an un-numbered period of years subject to God’s will and plan.

Theologians pondering this thousand-year period have traditionally been divided into three camps:

• Premillennialism
• Postmillennialism
• Amillennialism

Premillennialism: Christ’s second coming will come before the thousand-year period(largely an historist / dispensational view). This view of the Revelation holds that Christ will return to reign with his saints just before the millennial period of a literal one thousand years. During this time, there will be global peace and prosperity, but sin and death will still be found in the world¹⁶³.

1. Satan will be imprisoned by God and will have no power over the saints reigning with Christ.
2. At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be loosed for a short period of time.
3. After this, the end of time and eternal judgment will come.

Generally, premillennial historists and dispensationalists see the nation of Israel playing a significant role in God’s final plans for the world. They also expect the rapture of the saints (literally, caught up), to take place before the final tribulation (persecutions of the saints)¹⁶⁴.

Irenaeus wrote that the ancient Church Father, Papias (c. 130), saw the millennium as a future golden age on earth. Papias’ descriptions were greatly influenced by Jewish tradition¹⁶⁵, and his views were followed to some extent by, among others, Irenaeus himself, Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, Tertullian, and Lactantius¹⁶⁶.

The early Church historian, Eusebius (260?-340?) writes:

…he [Papias] says that after the resurrection of the dead there will be a thousand-year period when the kingdom of Christ will be established on this earth in material form. I suppose that he got these notions by misunderstanding the apostolic accounts, not realizing that they had used mystic and symbolic language. For he was a man of very limited intelligence, as is clear from his books. Due to him, however, many church writers after him held the same opinion, relying on his early date: Irenaeus, for example, and any others who adopted the same views¹⁶⁷.

Because of this, some premillennialists often claim that the early church was uniformly premillennial, but much of what was written in the first four centuries of the church has been lost so there may have been a variety of interpretations that are not extant. Justin Martyr wrote:

I am not so miserable a fellow, Trypho, as to say one thing and think another. I admitted to you formerly, that I and many others are of this opinion [Premillennialism], and [believe] that such will take place, as you assuredly are aware; but on the other hand, I signified to you that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise. (Dialogue With Trypho, Chapter 80:2)

Postmillennialism: In its literal form, postmillennialism maintains that Christ’s Second Coming will follow a literal one-thousand-year period of unprecedented church expansion, spiritual growth, and political peace and prosperity¹⁶⁸.  Postmillennialists are sometimes preterist in their approach to the revelation. Their view of the future is very optimistic, so the interpretation flows better if the disasters described in Revelation are seen as belonging to the distant past rather than to the future.

Postmillennialists see the tribulation as having taken place during the razing of Jerusalem in 70 A.D., and during the Roman persecutions that followed. They maintain that the catching up of the saints represents the moment of a person’s conversion and salvation, rather than an end-time event.

Amillennialism: The term amillennialism is a misnomer. The “a” at the beginning would lead one to think that amillennialists do not believe in the thousand-year reign of Christ. A better title would be something like current millennialism, or, in-the-midst-of millennialism, indicating that the Church is now living in the millennial age¹⁶⁹. Amillennialism interprets the thousand years as symbolizing an indefinite time stretching from the crucifixion of Jesus to his Second Coming. This is the Age of the Church (symbolic or allegorical viewÑ).

This view of John’s vision was generally held through the early church period and became the accepted interpretation with Augustine’s writings (354-430 A.D.)¹⁷⁰, and remained the favored opinion until the nineteenth century. It is still the dominant view of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, many Protestants, and it was the view of the reformers, including Calvin and Luther¹⁷¹.

Amillennialists maintain that Christ established His Kingdom at his death, resurrection, and ascension, and the tribulation took place specifically during the early centuries of the church, yet generally has continued in the persecutions and struggles of Christians throughout history. They teach that the Kingdom of God is present on the earth through the heavenly reign of Christ, the Church, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit, and that we are currently living in the millennial period.

This view sees the events that Jesus described (Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 21) and in the greater part of John’s Revelation, as have taken place during the first two centuries of Church history, and are symbolic of the struggles faced by Christians in any age. They also proclaim that Christ rules from heaven over all creation, and will, at the end of this age, come to judge the living and the dead. Christ is in the process of conquering all nations by the Gospel, and eventually, through the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, the earth will be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea (Isa. 11:9).

However, many amillennialists believe that the Church will never have complete victory over the earth. Evil will be pitted against good until the Second Coming of Christ when sin and death will finally be swallowed up:

1 Cor 15:52-54 …in a flash, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed. For the perishable must clothe itself with the imperishable, and the mortal with immortality. When the perishable has been clothed with the imperishable, and the mortal with immortality, then the saying that is written will come true: “Death has been swallowed up in victory.”

In some respects, amillennialism shares similarities with postmillennialism. Both claim that Christ’s Second Coming will be at the end of the thousand-year period. Jerome (c. 345-420) listed Victorinus, Tertullian, and Lactantius as Chiliast (premillennialists), while the early church fathers in Alexandria such as Origen (c. 185-254), Clement (c. 150-215), and Methodius, argued against the literal interpretations of millennialism as being Jewish (see introductory notes on Revelation Chapter 20) and cautioned a more symbolic or allegorical approach.

In the final analysis, Jerome and Augustine both took up symbolic methods of interpretation, and it became the standard in the church for the next eight hundred years¹⁷². This use of allegory and symbol did away with the expectation of specific historical fulfillments and eventually displaced the historist approach in the early Church. Swete, in his book The Apocalypse of St. John, writes:

Primasius, Cassiodorius, Apringius, Bede, Beatus, and most of the writers on the Apocalypse who followed them in the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages, were content with a mystical exegesis which varied in its details according to the fancy of the individual expositor or the needs or ideas of his time.

MISHNAH

The Mishnah comprises the first part of the Talmud, which is a codification of the oral law of the Old Testament and of the political and civil laws of the Jews¹⁷³. The Mishnah was compiled and edited (orally) in the last quarter of the 2nd century AD or the first quarter of the 3rd century, by Rabbi Judah (circa 135-c. 220), known as ha-Kadosh (Hebrew, the Saint) or ha-Nasi (Hebrew, the Prince or the Patriarch), but generally known to devout Jews simply as Rabbi¹⁷⁴. He was the patriarch of Palestinian Jewry and grandson of Gamaliel of Jabneh. In this final redaction, the Mishnah represents several centuries of evolution. Among the various earlier collections, the earliest was that of the pupils of Shammai and of Hillel, an ancestor of Rabbi Judah¹⁷⁵.

MUHAMMAD (MOHAMMED)

Muhammad, the prophet and founder of Islam, was born in Mecca between AD 570 and 580. Historians record that he was orphaned by age six, and raised by his uncle. He lived in humble circumstances, until at age of twenty-five, he married a wealthy widow named Khadija. Muhammad became a respected merchant and traveled the ancient trade routes expanding his business¹⁷⁶.

His intention was to bridge the gap between Judaism and Christianity, both of which he believed had become corrupted¹⁷⁷.

Many scholars believe that he desired to integrate spiritual elements into a meaningful theology for his own people. However, his interpretations of Biblical stories and Jewish traditions suggest that he learned about them indirectly, likely from Jewish and Christian traders and travelers whose religious knowledge was limited and intertwined with contemporary legends and myths.¹⁷⁸.  It is likely that he was also influenced by the native holy men who were themselves dissatisfied with Arabian paganism.

Edward Gibbon, in his history The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, writes that Nestorian Christians influenced Muhammad¹⁷⁹,  and Njeim maintains that the Christian monk who influenced him most was a man named Baheira, a Nestorian priest¹⁸⁰.

According to his own story of those formative years, Muhammad’s only desire was to find a religion that was pure and undefiled¹⁸¹. His disdain for images, saints, prayers for the dead, and denial of the divinity of Jesus Christ, were typical of the Nestorian and Arian theologies.

Those who knew him acknowledged his piety, and by an early age, he had acquired the nickname al-Amin, which means faithful or trustworthy¹⁸². He had a thirst for justice and spiritual knowledge that drove him throughout his life, often retreating to a cave on Mt. Hira, near Mecca, to pray and meditate. It was during one of those pilgrimages that Muhammad claimed to have been visited by the angel Gabriel. According to his testimony, the angel gave him the revelations that were to lead to the establishment of a world religion¹⁸³. Muhammad’s religion, Islam (literally, submission to God) gained credibility, a following, and then tremendous momentum.

Through persuasion, oppression, and at the point of the sword, Islam spread through all of Arabia, east to Persia and India, and north into Syria and Armenia. Islam’s religion and armies then turned west, sweeping through North Africa, Spain, Portugal, and halfway into France. The Moslem Jihad (holy wars) would eventually ravage Rome itself. Under the guidance of Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s successor, the Arab conquests swept through Syria, Iraq, the southern provinces of Persia, and, by his death in 634, the entire Byzantine Empire.

By 762, the Islamic Empire embraced more cultures and territory than the Roman Empire had.

NAZARENE SECT OF CHRISTIANITY

Judaism in the 1st century after Christ was composed of diverse groups of theological thought. The Pharisees and Sadducees continued for a time to be the ruling and priestly class in Jerusalem. There were also groups like the Zealots, who demanded freedom from all Roman authority, and the Essenes who were most likely the group that produced the Dead Sea Scrolls.

These ancient writers made a distinction between the Jewish Christian Nazarenes of their time and the followers of the Nazarene (Jesus) mentioned in Acts 24:5. Each group, while having their own unique interpretation of scripture and traditions, still worshipped in a certain degree of harmony with one another, much like many of the Christian denominations of the modern era¹⁸⁵.

According to Eusebius (History of the Church, Book 3, paragraph 5), many of the Nazarene group, along with the gentile Christians, fled Jerusalem preceding the Roman destruction of 70 A.D. and settled safely in Pella of the Decapolis (see Pella, Appendix). Increasingly, however, any theological views of Christ as the Son of God ran contrary to Jewish monotheism. Gradually, over time, all Christians, Jew or Gentle, were shunned by the greater Jewish community. Ray Pritz writes that some historians trace the official ban from synagogues to the Jewish Synod of Jamnia (c. mid-80s of the 1st century)¹⁸⁶.

Pritz maintains that the continued existence of the Nazarenes as a distinct sect can be traced with reasonable certainty down to the fourth century. Geographically, the Nazarenes were essentially limited to pockets of existence along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and in the region of Galilee and Jerusalem, at least until the city fell to Emperor Hadrian and his soldiers in 135 A.D. when the Bar Kochba rebellion was squelched¹⁸⁷.

Eventually, the Nazarenes were even rejected by the greater gentile Christian community who were moving further away from all things Jewish.

NERO

Nero started life with an unfortunate heritage.  His father was Cnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, who was notorious for wickedness¹⁸⁸. He had killed a freedman for no other crime than refusing to drink more wine. He had deliberately run over a child in his chariot on the Appian Way, and in a brawl in the Forum, he had gouged out the eye of a Roman knight¹⁸⁹.

Claudius already had two children, Octavia and Britannicus. When Nero was eleven, Agrippina convinced Claudius to adopt Nero as his son and persuaded the emperor to marry her even though he was her uncle. Agrippina summoned the famous philosopher Seneca and the great soldier Afranius Burrus as Nero’s tutors¹⁹¹. Steadily, Britannicus, the heir to the throne, was pushed into the background, and Nero was given the limelight.

The marriage lasted five years. Roman tradition is unanimous in stating that Claudius was poisoned by Agrippina on October 13, 54. Though the details differ, a version has Agrippina arranging for Claudius’ death by feeding him a dish of poisoned mushrooms. No sooner had Claudius died, than Nero was named emperor.

Nero’s life of lust and extremes is legendary and well documented by Tacitus (Tacitus Publius Cornelius, c. 55-120 A.D.), Suetonius (Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 70-140 A.D.), and Cassius Dio (Dion Cassius Cocceianus (c. 155-235 A.D.).

Nero murdered Britannicus as a possible rival. A large part of Nero’s claim to the throne was based upon his marriage to Octavia – the daughter of Claudius and his half-sister. When Nero became attracted to another woman (the wife of his best friend Otho), he had his own wife imprisoned on an island, and Otho was sent to govern a remote region. After divorcing his wife, he married his new love, Poppaea¹⁹². He had Octavia killed, and later, in a fit of anger, kicked pregnant Poppaea to death. Nero publicly married a young man named Sporus in a state wedding.  He was also married to a freedman called Doryphorus. Seneca was forced to commit suicide, and Burrus was poisoned¹⁹³.  

The people suspected who was responsible for the fire, but Nero diverted the blame to the Christians and cruelly encouraged their persecution. Tacitus writes:

But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called “Chrestians” by the populace.

Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular.

Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. (Tacitus, Annals, XV.44)

Suetonius adds:

Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition (Biography of Nero, 16:2).

Agrippina made some attempt to control him, and it was rumored that an incestuous relationship existed between them¹⁹⁴. He finally turned against her. and made repeated attempts to murder her by poison, by causing the roof of her house to collapse, and by sending her to sea in a boat designed to break up.  Finally, he sent his freedman Anicetus to stab her to death¹⁹⁵.  

Nero’s vicious reign finally came to an end. First, Julius Vindex rebelled in Gaul, then Galba in Spain. Finally, the senate declared Nero a public enemy. He went into hiding, but in the end, died by suicide rather than being caught and punished¹⁹⁶.

The historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Zonaras write that even after Nero had committed suicide, official letters and notices were published in his name, and his image was used to decorate speaker’s podiums and official sites.

Rumors spread that Nero was not truly dead but would return with conquering armies. In fact, during the decades following Nero’s death, several pretenders did come forth claiming to be Nero (Tacitus, Histories 1.78; 2.8; Suetonius, Nero 57). By the turn of the first century a further twist was added to the Nero legend. It was said he would actually rise from the dead, return to Rome, and seize the empire. This myth of Nero’s return so captured the popular fancy that it found its way into Jewish and Christian apocalyptic writings. Here, the triumphant Nero was sometimes even pictured as the antichrist (Ascension of Isaiah 4:1-14; Sibylline Oracles 4:119-124; 5:137-154, 361-374).

NICENE CREED, FIRST COUNCIL OF NICAEA

The initial Nicene Creed was adopted at the first Council of Nicaea in AD 325 to settle a controversy concerning the concept of the Trinity – the relationship between Jesus and God. It was intended to cover debated questions as to the divinity of Christ, and it introduced the word homoousios (Greek, of the same substance) to correct the error of the homoiousian (of like substance) party¹⁹⁷. To it were added several clauses against Arianism.

NICOLAITANS

The Nicolaitans are only mentioned twice in scripture, once in reference to the church in Ephesus (Revelation 2:6) and again in the letter to the church at Pergamum (Rev 2:14-15). After commending the Ephesian church for their perseverance, Christ condemns the works of the Nicolaitans. A few verses later, the saints at Pergamos are called to repent from their involvement with this group.

The name Nicolaitans literally means destruction of people (Strong’s Concordance, G3531). Early Christian writers Irenaeus (Against Heresies, 1.26.3) and Tertullian (Prescription against Heretics, 33) believed that the Nicolaitans were followers of Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons chosen to serve the Church (Acts 6:5). No evidence supporting this exists beyond these two writers. The name could simply be a pejorative for those who were eroding the true teachings of Jesus and leading some astray.

The heretical activities of the Nicolaitans are more directly addressed in Rev 2:14-15 where they may be linked with the teachings of Balaam (Num 22-24) involving eating food that had been sacrificed to idols and sexual immorality. Interestingly, the same judgment is leveled against the saints at Thyatira (2:20) for similar activities. Both the terms Nicolaitans and Jezebel could be derogatory names given generally to those Christians who continued to hold on to pagan customs and mislead others into doing the same.

NUMBERS – NUMERALS (see Gematria)

ORIGEN

Origen (c. 185–c. 254) was a prominent theologian and biblical scholar in the early Greek church. He was celebrated for his significant work, the Hexapla, which compared six versions of the Old Testament. Porphyry claims he was born to pagan parents, but Eusebius of Caesarea asserts that his parents were Christians. Eusebius writes that Origen’s father, Leonides, was martyred in the year 202, which forced Origen to take on the responsibility of supporting his family. Origen wanted to be martyred with his father but was prevented from turning himself in to the authorities by his mother¹⁹⁸. When he was eighteen years old, Origen became a catechist at the Didascalium or School of Alexandria. He immersed himself in his studies and adopted an ascetic lifestyle.

During Origen’s time, Christianity lacked a formal theological system, resulting in diverse beliefs and sects. The Gnostic schools, especially the school founded by Valentinus, were notably influential. In his Commentary on John, Origen critiques the Gnostic Heracleon but acknowledges the effectiveness of Gnostic systematic thought. With no established non-Gnostic theology available, Origen took it upon himself to create one, leading to his treatise, On First Principles.

Origen became a well-known lay preacher, and while traveling to Athens, he was ordained as a presbyter by his friend Theoclistus, the bishop of Caesarea. In 231, he came into conflict with Demetrius, the bishop of Alexandria, who condemned Origen for insubordination. Demetrius accused him of having castrated himself and of teaching that even Satan would ultimately attain salvation—an accusation that Origen strongly denied. Angered by Origen’s ordination, Demetrius instigated a synodical condemnation, which was not accepted in Greece and Palestine²⁰⁰.

Despite the controversy, Origen attracted many students, one of the most notable being Gregory Thaumaturgus, who later became the bishop of Neocaesarea²⁰¹. Thanks to the support of his close friend Ambrose of Alexandria, Origen was able to produce an extensive body of writings. Ambrose provided him with a team of secretaries to help copy his works, making Origen one of the most prolific writers of late antiquity. He authored approximately 2,000 treatises across various branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, homiletics, and spirituality. He was one of the most influential and controversial figures in early Christian theology, apologetics, and asceticism and has been described as “the greatest genius the early church ever produced.”²⁰²

Eventually, Origen’s passionate defence of the Christian faith drew the attention of the Roman Empire. A plague struck Rome around AD 251, and Emperor Decius blamed it on the Christians because they refused to worship him as a divine being. Origen was imprisoned and brutally tortured but purposefully kept alive, in hopes he would recant his faith. He stood by his faith and was eventually released from prison. However, badly weakened by the torture, he died from his injuries very shortly after being freed²⁰³.

PARALLELISM

Parallelism maintains that John’s vision does not necessarily relate events in chronological order but frequently repeats the same topic, describing it with different illustrations, much like looking at different facets of the same diamond. For example, the images concerning the seven trumpets (8-11), and the seven bowl plagues (16-21) appear to be the same events illustrated in two different ways:

AFFECTS	7 TRUMPETS	7 BOWLS
The earth (8:7; 16:2);	Earth, trees, grass burned…	Festering sores…
Sea (8:8; 16:3)	Seas turn to blood…	Seas turn to blood…
Rivers (8:10; 16:4)	Rivers and springs poisoned…	Rivers and springs poisoned…
Heavens (8:12; 16:8)	Those not sealed to God suffer	Those not sealed to God suffer
Great battle (9:13; 16:12)	200 million warriors loosed	Battle of Armageddon
The end (11:15; 16:17)	Heavens open – Judgment	“It is done!”  16:17

Three different passages describe a final “Battle” (16:14; 19:19; 20:8). Parallelism views these as the same battle seen from different perspectives.

The concept of parallelism cautions readers against trying to arrange John’s images chronologically based on a passage’s position in the vision.

PARTHIA

Parthia was successively controlled by the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedonians under Alexander the Great, and later the Seleucids. About 250 BC, the Parthians succeeded in founding an independent kingdom that, during the 1st century BC, grew into an empire extending from the Euphrates River to the Indus River and from the Oxus (now Amu Darya) River to the Indian Ocean.

After the middle of the 1st century BC, Parthia was a rival of Rome, and several wars occurred between the two powers. In AD 226, Ardashir I, king of Persia and founder of the Sassanid dynasty, conquered Parthia²⁰⁶.

PATMOS

The island of Patmos is located in the Aegean Sea, part of the Sporades group of islands, and is a part of Greece.

During the Roman era, Patmos was one of several “legally remote” locations, where prisoners were held indefinitely without charge or trial, subject only to the will of the Roman emperor²⁰⁷. These sites were often used to detain political or religious prisoners. According to Eusebius, John was sent to Patmos by the Roman emperor Domitian in the year 95, but he was released less than two years later. If John was somewhat younger than Jesus, he could have been upwards of ninety years old at the time of his release, making him likely the only apostle to have survived to old age. According to Christian tradition, it is believed that the other Apostles were martyred.

PELAGIANISM 

Pelagius was likely an Irish monk living in Rome around 390 A.D. He and his disciples taught that man was created with the possibility of living a sinless life, with the will to do so residing in every person. He believed man has the innate power to live that sinless life without the support or intervention of God.  Augustine, then the Bishop of Hippo in Africa and an important early church theologian, answered Pelagius’ claims, teaching the doctrine of original sin and the absolute need for God’s grace, which became the foundation for Catholic doctrine²⁰⁸.

PELLA

Pella was an ancient city in what is now northwest Jordan. Pella’s ruins, predominantly temples, churches, and housing, have been partially excavated by teams of archaeologists. It is located near the modern village of Ṭabaqat Faḥl, some 27 miles south of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias). Occupied since Neolithic times, Pella combined with other like-minded towns in the region during the Hellenistic period and formed a political and cultural league known as the “Decapolis, a regionally influential area under Roman jurisdiction²⁰⁹.

Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy. He also mentions the Church’s flight to Pella:

… since all the disciples had settled in Pella after their removal from Jerusalem — Christ having told them to abandon Jerusalem and withdraw from it because of the siege it was about to undergo. And they settled in Peraea for this reason and, as I said, lived their lives there. (Panarion, 29:7:7-8)

So Aquila, while he was in Jerusalem, also saw the disciples of the disciples of the apostles flourishing in the faith and working great signs, healings, and other miracles. For they were such as had come back from the city of Pella to Jerusalem and were living there and teaching. For when the city was about to be taken and destroyed by the Romans, it was revealed in advance to all the disciples by an angel of God that they should remove from the city, as it was going to be completely destroyed. They sojourned as emigrants in Pella, the city above mentioned in Transjordania. And this city is said to be of the Decapolis.” (Epiphanius, On Weights and Measures, 15)

PERGAMUM

Pergamum was culturally rich and became an important administrative center during the rule of King Eumenes II of the Attalid dynasty.

Under Eumenes, Pergamum cut ties with Macedonia and formed an alliance with the Roman Republic²¹¹. It was reported that its library held around 200,000 volumes, making it one of the most significant libraries in the ancient world, second only to the Library of Alexandria²¹². The name “pergamena” is Latin for parchment²¹³. As wealthy as Smyrna and Ephesus, Pergamum took the lead in the political etiquette of emperor worship. A century before Jesus was born, Pergamum had a beautiful temple dedicated to the worship of Caesar Augustus. The city was famous for the healing miracles of the god Asculapias, and a large school of pagan priests trained there in the healing arts²¹⁴.

PERPETUA, DIARY OF (The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas)

According to Rev. R. E. Wallis, Perpetua and Felicitas suffered martyrdom during the reign of Septimius Severus, about the year 202 AD. Some consider Tertullian the author of her story but may have only been the editor of an extant document²¹⁵. A further clue to the date is the mention of the birthday of Geta the Caesar, who was the son of Septimius Severus.

Perpetua’s father passionately tries to convince her to renounce Christ and reclaim her freedom. She refuses the pleas of her grief-stricken father and remains in prison. During her stay she receives visions concerning her deceased brother and one where she sees herself as a man who defeats Egyptian warrior in the arena. She understands this vision to mean that her battle will not be against wild beasts but against the devil, and hers would be the victory.

Following the narrative of Perpetua’s final vision, the document recounts a vision received by Saturus who was imprisoned after Perpetua. He has a vision of heaven, where he and Perpetua meet other martyrs. The diary then describes the martyrdom of Perpetua and the other prisoners.

Felicty, a cathecumen and a slave, expresses fear that she will not be martyred because she is pregnant, and it was illegal to subject a pregnant woman to capital punishment. The baby is born and entrusted to Felicity’s sister, and the martyrs share a final meal together,

The Roman authorities demand that the prisoners dress as Roman priests and priestesses for the spectacle, but the prisoners refuse, and speak boldy to the Roman Procurator, Hilarian, about God’s judgment. The crowed is outraged and Hilarian orders the prisoners to be flogged.

Finally, wild animals are set loose on the martyrs. A boar turns on its handler, goring and killing him. A bear is uncaged and fails to attack. A raging bull and a leopard finally charge. The martyrs testify that they feel no pain as the beasts set upon them. A soldier named Pudens finishes off the mauled and bleeding prisoners with a sword. Before dying, Saturus gives Pudens a blood-soaked ring as a memorial²¹⁶.

PHARISEES

The Pharisees were the most numerous and influential religious sects in Jesus’ day. They were strict legalists who took tremendous pride in their uncompromising observance of Jewish traditions and the letter of the Mosaic Law²¹⁷.

During the Maccabean period (c. 142-63 BC), two religious parties developed in sharp contrast to one another. The Sadducean party came from the ranks of the priests, and the Pharisees evolved from the scribes (lawyers of the day, copyists, and recognized authorities of the Scriptures)²¹⁸. The Pharisees became the religious leaders of the nation.

Their aim was to preserve their national integrity and strict conformity to Mosaic law. They later developed into self-righteous and hypocritical formalists.²²⁰

Although the Sadducees headed the Sanhedrin²²¹, the Pharisees were the decisive influence when it came to the Law and public affairs. They believed that strict observance of every nuance of the Law was what guaranteed them the favor and acceptance of God. All else was unclean, including the common folk – the very ones to whom they should have been ministering. Pharisees were more concerned with religious legal issues, and the Sadducees jealously guarded their social position, both of which were turned on end by the teachings of Jesus.

PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia was a city in the ancient kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, located on the Cogamus River, 105 miles from Smyrna. The town stood on a terrace 650 ft. above the sea. Behind it were volcanic cliffs the Turks called Devitt, or inkwells²²². On the other side of the city, the land was very fertile, and the Roman poet Virgil celebrated the superiority of the wine produced there²²³.

As one of the ten cities of the plain, it was considered a part of the Decapolis²²⁵. Its modern name, Ala-shehir, is considered by some to be a corruption of the Turkish words Allah-shehir, The city of God. In addition, it sometimes bore the title of Little Athens because of the magnificence of its temples and other public buildings²²⁶.

Philadelphia became an important and wealthy trade center. Located on the borders of Lydia, it commanded the approaches to the interior provinces. This was a strategic location from which to spread Greek culture into new localities. For the same reason, Philadelphia was an ideal place from which to spread the gospel message. This could be the reason it was called the church of the open door (Rev. 3:7).

Philadelphia grew in power and retained its importance even until late Byzantine times. As in most Asia Minor cities, many Jews lived there. During the reign of Tiberius, the city was destroyed by an earthquake but quickly rebuilt. Frederick Barbarossa entered it while on his crusade in 1190. Twice, in 1306 and 1324, the Seljuk Turks besieged it, but it retained its independence until after 1390, when the combined forces of the Turks and Byzantines captured it. In 1403, Tamerlane conquered the city, and, it is said, built about it a wall of the corpses of his victims²²⁷.

Ala-shehir, as it is called today, is still predominately a Christian community. One-fourth of its modern population is Greek, and a Greek bishop still makes his home there. One of the chief modern industries is a liquorice factory²²⁸.

The ruins of a castle’s walls and the foundation of the early church can still be seen. The ruins are accessed by rail from Smyrna.

Out of the seven churches mentioned in John’s Revelation, only Philadelphia and Smyrna received no rebuke from the Lord, and only these two cities remain today, both about the same size and relative importance as when the revelation was received.

PHILO

Philo Judaeus, also Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC-50 AD), was a Jewish philosopher. He immersed himself so completely in the tenets of Greek philosophy that he is also considered a Greek philosopher²²⁹ Philo was born in Alexandria, Egypt, to a wealthy, aristocratic Jewish family. He received a comprehensive education in the Old Testament, Greek literature, and philosophy. He was well-versed in Homer’s and the Greek tragedians’ works. His philosophical influences included Plato, Aristotle, the Neo-Pythagoreans, the Cynics, and the Stoics²³⁰.

Philo believed that an individual’s duties consist of veneration of God and love and righteousness toward others. He saw humans as immortal by reason of their heavenly nature. However, just as degrees in this divine nature exist, degrees of immortality also exist. Mere living after death, common to all humanity, differs from the future existence of the perfect souls, for whom paradise is oneness with God²³⁴.

Many of Philo’s extant works are concerned with the exposition and allegorical interpretation of Genesis and with the exposition of the Law of Moses for Gentiles. His other writings include biographies of biblical characters and a series of works on the Ten Commandments²³⁵.

PHYLACTERIES

Called by modern Jews tephillin (prayers), phylacteries (Gr. phulakteria; i.e., defenses or protections), are only mentioned in Matthew 23:5.  They consisted of strips of parchment on which were inscribed the covenant promises of Exod 13:1-10, 11-16, Deu 6:4-9, and Deu 11:18-21. These verses were then sealed in a leather case and fastened by straps to the forehead and on the left arm near the elbow²³⁶.

The wearing of phylacteries is based on verses that counsel Israel to love God and keep His commandments and to tie them as symbols on their hands and on their foreheads (Exod 13:9, Deu 6:8, 11:18).

 PLINY, The Younger

Pliny the Younger (62-113) was a Roman official whose letters give valuable descriptions of life in the 1st century AD. His full Latin name was Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus. He was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder, and took his name. Pliny the Younger was born in Novum Comum and studied in Rome under the famous teacher and rhetorician Quintilian²³⁹. He was distinguished both for his literary accomplishments and for his oratorical ability. He held numerous official appointments. As a young man, he served as a military tribune in Syria, where he frequented the schools of the Stoics. He was quaestor Caesaris at the age of 25, then praetor, and then consul in 100, in which year he wrote the Panegyricus, a eulogy of the emperor Trajan. About 111, he was appointed governor of the province of Bithynia, where he remained for about two years. Whether his death occurred in Bithynia or soon after in Rome is not known. He was married three times but died childless²⁴⁰.

One letter to the Roman emperor Trajan discusses the policy concerning the Christians:

Pliny, to the Emperor Trajan, concerning the Christians:

It is my custom to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance. I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do not know the nature of the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them, nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed. Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the grounds of age, or if young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and whether it is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or rather the crimes associated with the name.

For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time, with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go unpunished. There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens. I have entered them on the list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.

Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous pamphlet has been circulated which contains the names of a number of accused persons. Amongst these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.

Others, whose names were given to me by an informer, first admitted the charge and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago. They all did reverence to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and reviled the name of Christ. They also declared that the sum total of their guilt or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately amongst themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose, but to abstain from theft, robbery, and adultery, to commit no breach of trust and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it. After this ceremony it had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies. This made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses. I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths.

I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you. The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view of the number of persons endangered, for a great many individuals of every age and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to continue. It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which are infected through contact with this wretched cult. I think though that it is still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they were given an opportunity to repent.²⁴²

PRECIOUS STONES OF THE BIBLE

Caird writes, Most ancient writers were somewhat vague in their identification of precious stones, so that a single Hebrew stone could easily be equated with more than one Greek one²⁴³. Five of John’s Greek words are different than those found in the LXX. Caird maintains that this is because John has made his own translation of the Hebrew.

The order in which John sees the stones has been perplexing to translators. According to both Josephus (Ant. 3:7) and Philo (Vit. Mos. 3:124), the stones on the high priest’s breastplate were representative of the zodiac, and R.H. Charles and Caird, among others, try to link them with the same:

They further note that John’s list is the exact opposite of the traditional zodiacal order (according to ancient Egyptian and Arabian monuments), symbolically stating that God’s Holy City is the antithesis of anything carnal or worldly²⁴⁴.

Farrer offers another possibility. He suggests that John has divided the list into groups of threes, just as in the Exodus passage, and observes that each of the Greek names ends with an “s” sound, except for three, which end with an “n”.²⁴⁵ The Greek list would look like this:

Barclay describes the history of the ancient gems²⁴⁶:

• Jasper:  not the modern opaque jasper but a translucent rock crystal, green in color.
• Sapphire: not the modern sapphire. Pliny describes it as sky-blue, flecked with gold – most likely the stone now known as lapis lazuli.
• Chalcedony: a green silicate of copper, found in mines near Chalcedon – described as being like the sheen of green on a dove’s neck or in a peacock’s tail.
• Emerald: the modern emerald, Pliny describes it as the greenest of all green stones.
• Sardonyx: an onyx in which the white was broken by layers of red and brown – used for cameos.
• Sard or carnelian: took its name from Sardis. It was blood red, and was the most common of all stones used for engraving gems.
• Chrysolite: This description is uncertain. Its Hebrew name means the stone of Tarshish.  Pliny describes it as shining with a golden radiance. It could be a yellow beryl or a gold-colored jasper.
• Beryl: like an emerald – sea-blue or sea-green.
• Topaz:  a transparent, greenish-gold stone, very highly valued by the Hebrews. Job speaks of the topaz of Ethiopia (Job 28:19).
• Jacinth: described by ancient writers as a violet, bluish-purple stone – likely the equivalent of the modern sapphire.
• Amethyst: described as similar to the jacinth but more brilliant.

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

Protestant and Jewish scholars customarily use the term Pseudepigrapha to describe those writings that Roman Catholics would term Apocrypha – that is, late Jewish writings that scholars consider extracanonical. Such works include:

The authorship of these is attributed to various heroes and prophets of the Old Testament and date from intertestamental times. None have been preserved in their original Hebrew or Aramaic. Fragments of other pseudepigraphical works, preserved in Hebrew or Aramaic, have turned up among the Qumrân material (see Dead Sea Scrolls).²⁴⁷

RIGHT HAND

Luke Mastin writes:

There is some evidence that all of the early great civilizations of the world – from the ancient Mesopotamians to the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans – have been strongly biased towards the right hand. The right hand of the gods was considered to be healing and beneficent, while their left hand was used for curses or inflicting injury. The strongly anti-left Ancient Egyptians often depicted their enemies as left-handed while they were the righteous dextrals. In almost all of these cultures, the right hand was used for ceremonies and for eating, and the right-hand side was always the favoured position²⁴⁸.

It is clear from Ex. 15:6, 12; Isa. 62:8; Ps. 17:7; 44:4, 98:1; 118:15,16, etc., that the right hand was often a symbol of strength. The right eye was considered more valuable (Zech. 11:17), and Nahash the Ammonite demanded the putting out of every right eye in return for making a nonaggression pact with the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead (I Sam. 11:2).

The Jewish Virtual Library states that Judg. 3:15, sees left-handedness as a weakness or defect in Ehud, stating that:

…ishʾiṭṭer yad yemino (אִישׁ אִטֵּר יַד יְמִינוֹ), a man obstructed [in the use of] his right hand. The word used for obstructed is of the nominal construction that is usually utilized for physical defects–e.g., “blind” (עִוֵּר), “dumb” (אִלֵּם), and “deaf ” (חֵרֵשׁ). Left-handed men are mentioned elsewhere in Judges 20:16, where it is stated that (despite their left-handedness) they never missed the target, and in I Chronicles 12:2, where both right-handed and left-handed men are mentioned.²⁴⁹

SADDUCEES

The Sadducees were a religious faction in first-century Israel that wielded influence and power in nearly every aspect of Jewish society. These men were generally the Jewish aristocrats of their day, known as much for their wealth (and often corruption) as for their religious devotion.

The leader of the Sanhedrin was a High Priest given king-like authority—and was almost always a Sadducee. For instance, Annas and his son-in-law Caiaphas are two High Priests named in the New Testament (see Matthew 26:3 and Acts 4:6). Both were Sadducees—and both played critical roles in the execution of Jesus.

Sadducees Beliefs

• Sadducees placed special emphasis on the first five books of Moses (the Torah) and believed the Tanakh (Tanach), our Old Testament, was the only authority on matters of faith and life. They rejected the Pharisee teaching that oral tradition was equal to Scripture in authority.
• They believed that God did not intervene in human affairs and that each person was the master of his or her own destiny.
• Sadducees did not believe in the supernatural. They denied the existance of angels, demons, heaven, hell, and resurrection.
• Ironically, given they didn’t believe in an afterlife, they believed strongly in ritual purity as prescribed by Moses. They believed their personal “purity” qualified them to lead in Temple affairs (a great source of income).
• Wealth and power were paramount to the Sadducees. Modern archaeologists have uncovered a few ancient Sadducee homes, describing them as “the most opulent discovered to date in Jerusalem.”²⁵¹

The Sadducees were an elitist group focused on maintaining the priestly caste. They were also more liberal in their acceptance of Hellenism, a stance that the Pharisees opposed.

The Sadducee sect began to disappear after the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in 70 A.D. None of their writings have survived, so what is known about them comes from the New Testament and the records of their Pharisaic rivals.

Disputes Among the Three Parties²⁵²

	Sadducees	Pharisees	Essenes
Social Class	Priests, aristocrats	Common people	[Unknown]
Authority	Priests	“Disciples of the Wise”	“Teacher of Righteousness”
Practices	Emphasis on priestly obligations	Application of priestly laws to non-priests	“Inspired Exegesis”
Calendar	Luni-solar	Luni-solar	Solar
Attitude Toward:
Hellenism	For	Selective	Against
Hasmoneans	Opposed usurpation of priesthood by non-Zadokites	Opposed usurpation of monarchy	Personally opposed to Jonathan
Free will	Yes	Mostly	No
Afterlife	None	Resurrection	Spiritual Survival
Bible	Literalist	Sophisticated scholarly interpretations	“Inspired Exegesis”
Oral Torah	No such thing	Equal to Written Torah	“Inspired Exegesis”

---

SARDIS

The city of Sardis was one of the oldest and most important cities of Asia Minor and, until 549 BC, the capital of the kingdom of Lydia²⁵³. Around 612 BCE, Nineveh, considered to be the greatest city in the world at that time, was besieged and sacked by the Persians, Medes, and Babylonians, putting an end to the Assyrian Empire and shaping a new political map. Babylon became the imperial center of Mesopotamia, and the kingdom of Lydia became the dominant power in western Anatolia, with Sardis as its capital²⁵⁴.

The city is dominated by the ancient acropolis, which rises 300 meters above the surrounding plain. Polybius considered it to be “The strongest place in the world.”²⁵⁵ Cyrus the Great of Persia breached its defenses c. 549 B.C., as did Antiochus the Great of Rome in 218 BC ²⁵⁶. It eventually became famous for its red dyes and woolen goods. Tradition has it that the Apostle John first planted a church there.

In 17 AD, an earthquake destroyed Sardis. The Roman emperor Tiberius remitted the people’s taxes and rebuilt the city. In his honor, the citizens of that and neighboring towns erected a large monument. However, Sardis never recovered its former importance (compare Rev 3:12).

According to Revelation 3, the church in Sardis had, for a time at least, been an active, growing group of believers, but evidently made compromises in their faith walk. There are no records of persecution by the Jewish community, no mention of pressure by heretic Nicolaitans, no struggle with the gifts of the spirit, or of doctrinal misunderstandings. The church in Sardis seems to have bothered no one, and no one bothered her. The saints, once alive and vibrant witnesses, may have become comfortably secularized, and Christ pronounced them spiritually dead (Rev 3:1)!

The city continued to flourish until 1402 when it was so completely destroyed by the barbarian invader Tamerlane²⁵⁷ that it was never rebuilt. The small village of Sert (a corruption of its ancient name) occupies the area of the ruins. The ruins may be reached by rail from Smyrna on the way to Philadelphia²⁵⁸.

SATAN (see also, Lucifer)

According to the Old Testament, Satan was the angel who brought the prosecution against men in the presence of God – their adversary and accuser:

Zech 3:1 [ESV2011] Then he showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the LORD, and Satan standing at his right hand to accuse him. 2 And the LORD said to Satan, “The LORD rebuke you, O Satan! The LORD who has chosen Jerusalem rebuke you! Is not this a brand plucked from the fire?” 3 Now Joshua was standing before the angel, clothed with filthy garments. 4 And the angel said to those who were standing before him, “Remove the filthy garments from him.” And to him he said, “Behold, I have taken your iniquity away from you, and I will clothe you with pure vestments.” 5 And I said, “Let them put a clean turban on his head.” So they put a clean turban on his head and clothed him with garments. And the angel of the LORD was standing by.

• In ancient Egypt, Set, the red dragon pursues Isis and is later killed by her son Horus.
• In Greece, the dragon Python seeks to kill Apollo, the newborn son of Zeus.
• The young Arthur of Celtic legend is hidden away in a peasant family until the time that the magician Merlin prepares him to rule England.

Evil in the world has been represented in many forms. The dragon (Leviathan), is described in Job 41:1-34²⁵⁹.  The Ras Shamra tablets speak of the seven-headed ocean dragon, Lotan, also called Tiamat, in the Canaanite creation story²⁶⁰. The dragon/serpent became the scriptural symbol of rebellion against God and pagan culture. Jeremiah compares Nebuchadnezzar to a dragon that gulped down Jerusalem (Jer 51:34). Daniel saw terrifying beasts come up out of the sea (Dan 7:3-7), and John’s vision revealed beasts and dragons seeking to destroy the works of God and his Christ (Rev 11-20).

The evil one has been seen throughout the ages as chaos, the antithesis of God’s created order – darkness in opposition to God’s light. Our image of Satan coalesces through verses from both Testaments:

Isaiah 14:12 “How you have fallen from heaven, O morning star, son of the dawn! You have been cast down to the earth, you who once laid low the nations!”.

 In context, this prophecy is against Babylon, foretelling its fall and destruction. The eternal principle is evident in its similarity to other scriptures relating to Satan’s fall.

Luke 10:18 Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven”;

Rev 9:1 And the fifth angel blew his trumpet, and I saw a star fallen from heaven to earth, and he was given the key to the shaft of the bottomless pit.

Rev 12:3–9 And another sign appeared in heaven: behold, a great red dragon, with seven heads and ten horns, and on his heads seven diadems. 4 His tail swept down a third of the stars of heaven and cast them to the earth. …7 Now war arose in heaven, Michael and his angels fighting against the dragon. And the dragon and his angels fought back, 8 but he was defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in heaven. 9 And the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world— he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him.

SCRIBES

Scribes in ancient Israel were educated individuals dedicated to studying the Law, transcribing it, and writing commentaries on it. They were often hired to create written documents or to provide interpretations of legal matters. For example, Ezra, described as “a teacher well versed in the Law of Moses,” was a scribe (Ezra 7:6).

The scribes considered their work to be a sacred responsibility.  They would meticulously copy the Bible, even counting letters and spaces to ensure that each copy was accurate²⁶¹.

Subsequently, a significant portion of His sermon on the mount addressed the contrast between what the people had been taught by the scribes and what God truly desired (Matthew 5:21–48). Toward the end of His ministry, Jesus strongly condemned the scribes for their hypocrisy (Matthew 23). Although they knew the Law and taught it to others, they failed to live by it themselves.

SCYTHIANS

Ancient Greek writers gave this name to a number of nomadic tribes in southeastern Europe and Asia. The name was used either for the Scythians proper, or Scolots, dwelling north of the Black Sea, between the Carpathian Mountains and the Don River, in what is now Moldova, Ukraine, and western Russia, or for all the nomad tribes who inhabited the steppes eastward from what is now Hungary to the mountains of Turkistan²⁶³.

In modern times that record has been expanded chiefly by Russian and other anthropologists excavating kurgans in such places as Tyva and Kazakhstan²⁶⁶. The tribes are believed to have migrated to these areas from the region of the Altay Mountains, on the border of China, during the 8th century BC. Their speech was a form of Iranian, one of the branches of the Indo-European languages²⁶⁷.

The Scythians were both feared and admired for their skill in warfare, especially their horsemanship, as they were among the earliest people to master the art of riding. Their remarkable mobility astonished their neighbors²⁶⁸. They kept herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, lived in tent-covered wagons, and fought with bows and arrows on horseback, but eventually developed a rich culture characterized by opulent tombs, fine metalwork, and a brilliant art style²⁶⁹.

In the early 7th century BC the Scythians advanced south of the Caspian Sea and invaded the kingdom of Media, but Cyaxares, king of Media, expelled them in 625. Shortly after the middle of the 4th century BC the Scythians of southeastern Europe were subdued and largely exterminated by the Sarmatians, who then gave their name to the region²⁷⁰. The Scythian tribes in Asia, however, invaded the Parthian Empire, southeast of the Caspian Sea, in the 2nd century BC. About 130 BC they advanced eastward into the kingdom of Bactria, in the region of present-day Afghanistan, and in the 1st century BC they invaded western and northern India, where they remained powerful for five centuries²⁷¹.

SEPTUAGINT (LXX)

The Septuagint is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. It was presumably produced for the Jewish community in Egypt when Greek was the common language throughout the region. Analysis of the language has established that the Torah, or Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament), was translated near the middle of the 3rd century BC, and the remainder was translated in the 2nd century BC²⁷².

The term is derived from the Latin word septuaginta (seventy), and given the customary abbreviation LXX. Its name refers to the legend that the Hellenistic emperor Ptolemy II requested the translation, and the Jewish high priest of the time appointed seventy translators to render the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The story maintains that, miraculously, each of the seventy, working independently, produced identical translations²⁷³.

Because the Septuagint, rather than the Hebrew text, became the Bible of the early church, other Jewish translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek were made by the 3rd century and are extant only in fragments. Their history is even more obscure than that of the Septuagint²⁷⁴.

SIBYL

SIBYLLINE ORACLES

The Sibylline Oracles are a collection of poems and alleged prophecies in which enigmatic sybils affirmed Jewish or Christian doctrines. They were the work of certain Jewish and Christian writers from about 150 BC to about AD 180 and are not to be confused with the ancient Sibylline Scrolls. These later imitations claim to predict events that had already taken place in history or recount myths of past antiquity, especially warnings to cities and countries such as Assyria and Rome²⁷⁸.

Following is an example from Book 8:

GOD’S declarations of great wrath to come
In the last age upon the faithless world
I make known, prophesying to all men
According to their cities. From the time
5 When the great tower fell and the tongues of men
Were parted into many languages
Of mortals, first was Egypt’s royal power
Established, that of Persians and of Medes
And also of the Ethiopians
10 And of Assyria and Babylon,
Then the great pride of boasting Macedon,
Then, fifth, the famous lawless kingdom last
Of the Italians shall show many evils
Unto all mortals and shall spend the toils
15 Of men of every land. And it shall lead
The untamed kings of nations to the West,
Make laws for peoples and subject all things.
Late do the mills of God grind the fine flour.
Fire then shall destroy all things and give back
20 To fine dust the heads of the high-leafed hills…²⁷⁹

SMYRNA

The modern Turkish city of Izmir contains the ruins of ancient Smyrna, located about thirty-five miles (56 km) north of Ephesus. The original town was built near the remains of an ancient Greek colony destroyed in the 7th century BC. The Greek poet Homer, author of the epics The Iliad and the Odyssey, was probably born in Smyrna around 850 BC. According to the historian Herodotus, a shrine dedicated to him stood there during the Roman period²⁸⁰. In the 3rd century BC, the city was rebuilt by one of Alexander’s generals as a new Hellenistic center and eventually became a Roman commercial hub with a port on the Aegean Sea²⁸¹.

The name Smyrna means “myrrh,” which is a resin obtained from the Commiphora myrrha tree. Myrrh was a critical ingredient used to embalm bodies because one of its major properties was its ability to retard the putrefaction of dead flesh. This type of embalming was used in Egypt and Judea. Myrrh is often remembered as one of the three expensive gifts the Magi gave to Jesus after he was born²⁸³.

According to Josephus in his History of the Jews, a significant community of Jews and at least one synagogue was located there. Christians in Smyrna faced persecution from the Jewish community as well as their pagan neighbors. Polycarp, who had been taught by the Apostle John, was martyred in Smyrna at the instigation of Jews in about 156 AD²⁸⁴. Irenaeus, the 2nd-century bishop of Lyons, was born in Smyrna and, in his youth, knew Polycarp²⁸⁵.

SUNDAY (THE LORD’S DAY)

The expression the Lord’s Day is found only once in the Bible (Rev 1:10). The phrase came into more common use by the second century AD, in some early Christian writings such as Ignatius’s Epistle to the Magnesians 9:1 (c. AD 108), the Didache 14:1 (c. AD 100-125), and the Gospel of Peter²⁸⁶ 9:35; 12:50 (c. AD 125-50).

For Christians, the Lord’s Day was Sunday which was from sundown Saturday until sundown Sunday (by Jewish tradition). According to the Gospels, Jesus was raised from the dead on Sunday, the first day of the week ( Matt 28:1; Mark 16:2; Luke 24:1; John 20:1).

In 1 Corinthians 16:1-3, Paul writes:

Now about the collection for the Lord’s people: Do what I told the Galatian churches to do. On the first day of every week, each one of you should set aside a sum of money in keeping with your income, saving it up, so that when I come no collections will have to be made. Then, when I arrive, I will give letters of introduction to the men you approve and send them with your gift to Jerusalem.

In Acts 20:7, Luke writes:

On the first day of the week we came together to break bread. Paul spoke to the people and, because he intended to leave the next day, kept on talking until midnight.

The second-century Gospel of Peter speaks of the day of Jesus’ resurrection as the Lord’s Day (9:35; 12:50), and Justin Martyr affirms that Jesus was raised on the day of the Sun (Apology 67).

In Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. According to St. Jerome, If pagans call [the Lord’s Day] the ‘day of the sun,’ we willingly agree, for today the light of the world is raised, today is revealed the sun of justice with healing in his rays. (St. Jerome, Pasch.: CCL 78, 550)

Matt 28:1 After the Sabbath, at dawn on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalene and the other Mary went to look at the tomb.

Mark 16:2 Very early on the first day of the week, just after sunrise, they were on their way to the tomb…

Justin Martyr, in the mid-2nd, mentions that the memoirs of the apostles were read on the day called that of the sun, along with the writings of the prophets (First Apology, 67.3).

In 363, Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea prohibited observance of the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday), and encouraged Christians to work on Saturday and rest on the Lord’s Day (Sunday).²⁸⁸

SYMBOLIC NUMBERS (see also, Gematria)

The Bible’s use of symbolic numbers is based on their relationship to God’s Eternal Nature and the movement of His Spirit throughout man’s history. The following is a list of typical numbers that illustrate spiritual concepts related to the nature of God and His work:

One

A prime number having no divisors and no factors. Its use represents primacy, wholeness, and unity, as exemplified by God.

• One defines the first, the best, the only. It is the source of all other numbers.
• One usually represents Jehovah as the beginning and the source of creation – His sovereign rule, His omnipotence, His supremacy, His unique character.
• One also represents harmony, as in the oneness of unity or peace with God.

Three

• Three represents that which is solid, complete, and real.
• God represents three eternal characteristics: Omniscience, Omnipresence, and Omnipotence.
• Three divides our mortal existence into past, present and future.
• Three expresses the sum of our human abilities – thought, word and deed.
• Three encapsulates the very nature of God as the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Four

Rabbi Geoffrey Dennis writes, “Four is a recurrent number in both exoteric and esoteric Jewish traditions. The Passover Seder is particularly structured around fours: the Four Questions, the Four Sons, and four cups of wine. He continues:

• There are four cardinal directions:
• There are four Matriarchs.
• Four is also a common factor in esoteric interpretations;
• Four angels surround the Throne of Glory;
• There are four kingdoms of the eschaton;
• And the famous four Sages who enter Paradise.”²⁹⁰

Four is seen as the number symbolizing earthly creation:

• The four winds;
• The four directions; 
• The four seasons;
• The four corners of the earth;
• Parable of four types of soil (Matt 13);
• Four Gospels – Redemption of Man
• Four earthly kingdoms (Dan 7:3);

Six

Six represents man. On the sixth day, God created man. Six falls short of the perfect seven – mankind falling short of spiritual perfection.

• The Hebrew word for seven, sheh’-bah, is from a root word meaning to be complete or full. Six falls short of this perfection.
• The most recognizable symbol using six is the number of man, 666, in Revelation 13:18. John interprets it as the number of the beast.
• The number 666 represents everything that is in opposition to God. Since many of the numbers in Revelation refer to ideas rather than persons or literal quantities, the same principle should be followed here. Six is less than the sacred seven and is, therefore, imperfect.
• To the Jews, the number six was a number of dread and doom. “666” was the epitome of evil²⁹¹.

Seven

Rabbi Dennis writes

Seven is one of the greatest power numbers in Judaism, representing Creation, good fortune, and blessing. A Hebrew word for luck, gad, equals seven in gematria. Another Hebrew word for luck, mazal, equals 77. The Bible is replete with things grouped in sevens. Besides the seven days of creation and the exalted status of the seventh day Sabbath, there are seven laws of Noah and seven Patriarchs and Matriarchs. Several Jewish holidays are seven days long, and priestly ordination takes seven days. The Land of Israel was allowed to lie fallow one year in seven. The menorah in the Temple has seven branches. The prophet Zechariah describes a strange celestial stone with seven eyes (Chapter 4).²⁹³

Even science contains echoes of this mysterious number.

• All music is based on seven basic notes. The eighth note is just a higher or lower octave.
• If light is passed through a prism it splits into seven colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
• There are seven basic crystal systems in minerals.
• The periodic table has seven levels of periodicity.   

Eight

Eight is the number of completions.

• The Tabernacle was dedicated in an eight-day ceremony.
• Hanukkah is an eight-day holiday.

Eight represents new life, new beginnings, and resurrection. Being the perfect seven plus one, eight starts a new era. Some scholars see eight as representing Christ²⁹⁴.

• When the flood washed the earth clean, in a type of baptism, eight people were saved in the ark.
• The covenant sign of circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day (Gen 17:12).

Ten

Hebrew and Greek numerics give values to letters from one to ten, then increasing by tens to one hundred, then increasing by hundreds.

• Ten represents the completeness of order and symmetry.
• Ten finishes the cycle of things and exemplifies the balance of divine order.
• The number 10 is used 242 times in the Bible. The designation “10th” is used 79 times.
• Ten is also viewed as a complete and perfect number, as are 3, 7, and 12. It is made up of 4, the number of the physical creation, and 6, the number of man. As such, 10 signifies testimony, law, and responsibility²⁹⁵.

The following examples have also been noted²⁹⁶:

1. Genesis 1 uses the phrase “God said” 10 times, which is a testimony of His creative power.
2. God gave the 10 Commandments to man. Ten therefore represents man’s responsibility to keep the commandments.
3. A tithe is a 10th of our earnings and is a testimony of our faith in the Lord.
4. The Passover lamb was selected on day 10 of the 1st month (Exodus 12:3), as was Jesus, the Lamb that takes away the sins of the world (John 12:28 – 29; 1Corinthians 5:7).
5. Day 10 of the 7th month is also the Holy Day known as the Day of Atonement. This unique day of fasting pictures the removal of Satan, the author of sin, before the Millennial reign of Jesus begins (Revelation 20:1 – 2).
6. The 10th generation from creation experience the Great Flood.
7. 10 plagues on Egypt;
8. 10 spies brought back an evil report;
9. 10 witnesses were called in the Book of Ruth; 
10. 10 was the number of generations until an illegitimate son could enter the congregation of Israel (Deut 23:2);  
11. David was the 10th generation from Pharez;
12. 10 generations until an Ammonite or Moabite could enter the congregation of Israel (Deut. 23:3).
13. 10 tribes failed to walk with God and to do His will;
14.  The 10 lepers of Luke 17:12;
15. 10 kingdoms in the end times.

Twelve

Twelve is a number of perfection. It is the product of three times four, three representing divine perfection, and four representing things of creation. 

• Twelve months in the year.
• Twelve signs of the zodiac (Genesis 27:20, 25:16; Exodus 24:4, 25:27; Ezekiel 43:16;Yoma 75b, 77b; Taanit 25a; Hullin 95).
• Jesus chose twelve apostles to give order to his earthly kingdom, the Church.
• Use of the number twelve and its multiples are plentiful throughout John’s Revelation (4:4, 7:4, 12:1, 14:1-3, 21:12, 14, 21)²⁹⁷.

SYNAGOGUE

Strong’s Greek 4864, συναγωγή , sunagoge (sïn-a-ğō-ǰee’) meaning a gathering of persons, the meeting or the place or building.

Bacher and Demvitz write:

After the return from the Captivity, when the religious life was reorganized, especially under Ezra and his successors, congregational worship, consisting in prayer and the reading of sections from the Bible, developed side by side with the revival of the cult of the Temple at Jerusalem, and thus led to the building of synagogues. The place of meeting was called “bet ha-keneset,” since an assembly of the people for worship was termed a “keneset”; the assembly described in Neh. ix.-x. was known in tradition as the “great assembly”.³⁰⁰

Synagogues were established throughout the Roman Empire. Judaism was attractive to some Greeks and Romans because it encouraged family stability, practiced monotheism (as opposed to the confusing pantheon of mythological gods worshipped by the Romans), offered a well-defined moral and ethical code, and placed a high value on human life. Thus, many Greeks and Romans became noadiches, or God-fearers. These noadiches, while not converted to Judaism and the Law of Moses, were permitted to come to the synagogues, provided that they recognized and worshipped the God of Israel alone (cf. Acts 18:4-7).³⁰¹

Nearly every synagogue contained a holy ark (a chest or cabinet) in which the scrolls of God’s word were kept. The scrolls themselves were carefully constructed copies of the Old Testament Scriptures. At the end of each service, the scrolls would be carefully placed in the holy ark until the next service³⁰².

Each synagogue had a bema or platform at the center or one end of the room. The bema contained a reading desk (podium) and the chief seats for those leading or presiding over the service (Matt. 23:6). Seating was arranged so that everyone faced the bema. In many (but not all) synagogues, it appears that women customarily sat separate from men. Often, the walls of synagogues would be adorned with elaborate carvings reminding the Jews of their history and heritage³⁰³.

Generally, any Jewish male could lead a prayer or read and translate Scripture. Every service began with specific readings that had been prescribed by the scribes and rabbis. Nearly every service gave much attention to reading sections from the Law, the Prophets, and especially the Psalms³⁰⁴. The congregation would stand as Scripture was read (cf. Neh. 8:1-8), and the reader was forbidden to take his eyes off the scroll in order to ensure that the word of God was communicated accurately (cf. Luke 4:16-20). Following a reading, a male in the synagogue (usually prepared in advance) would seek to apply the Scripture to life in the form of a brief sermon. Visiting rabbis were frequently asked to bring sermons to local synagogues (see Acts 13:15ff)³⁰⁵.

TACITUS, CORNELIUS

His writings show imagination and wit. He was very critical of what he considered the declining moral and intellectual character of the empire, writing that they were robbers of the world who sought domination in profit (De vita Julii Agricolae), and on the subject of oratory, he lamented, …our age is so forlorn and so destitute of the glory of eloquence that it scarce retains the very name of orator. (Dialogue on Oratory)³⁰⁷.

His writings confirm his loyalty to the Roman state even though he was very critical of emperors Tiberius (r. 14-37 CE), Nero, and Domitian. His surviving works are:

• Agricola (De vita Julii Agricolae)
• Germania (De origine et situ Germanorum)
• Dialogue on Oratory (Dialogus de oratoribus)
• Histories (Historiae)
• Annals (Annales)

TALMUD

The Talmud is a body of Jewish civil and religious law, including commentaries on the Torah, or Pentateuch. It consists of a codification of laws, called the Mishnah, and a commentary on the Mishnah, called the Gemara (Gemora, Gemarah, or Gemorra) from the Hebrew and the Aramaic verb gamary)³⁰⁸. The material in the Talmud that concerns decisions by scholars on disputed legal questions is known as the Halakah; the legends, anecdotes, and sayings in the Talmud that are used to illustrate the traditional law are known as Haggada³⁰⁹.

The Babylonian Talmud became authoritative because the rabbinic academies of Babylonia survived those in Palestine by many centuries³¹⁰.

The Talmud itself, the works of Talmudic scholarship, and the commentaries concerning it constitute the most significant contributions to rabbinical literature in the history of Judaism³¹¹. One of the most important works of scholarship is the Mishneh Torah (Repetition of the Torah, c. 1180) by the Spanish rabbi, philosopher, and physician Maimonides. It is an abstract of all the rabbinical legal literature in existence at his time. The most widely known commentaries are those on the Babylonian Talmud by the French rabbi Rashi and by certain scholars known as theosophists, who lived in France and Germany between the 12th and 14th centuries and included some of Rashi’s grandsons³¹².

In 1520-22 and in 1523, the printer Daniel Bomberg first printed the Babylonian Talmud and the Palestinian Talmud in Venice. The entire Babylonian Talmud is available in an English translation (1935-52) edited by the British rabbi and scholar Isidore Epstein. Most of the Palestinian Talmud is available in a 19th-century French translation, but the rendering is defective and inaccurate³¹³. Twenty tractates of the Palestinian Talmud are found in a Latin translation, in the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum (1744-69) of Blasio Ugolino, an 18th-century Italian historian and antiquarian.

TARGUM

• The originally Judean Targum known as the Targum Onkelos;
• Three late and incomplete Targums, the so-called Jerusalem Targums, on the Pentateuch;
• The Judean Targum on the Prophets;
• Later fragments of another paraphrase of the Prophets;
• And Targums on Psalms, Job, Proverbs, the five so-called megillahs (Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Ecclesiastes), Chronicles, and the deuterocanonical additions to Esther.

TEMPLE SERVICE

Alfred Edersheim, gives the following description of the daily services held in the Temple:

The service included slaying the sacrificial lamb, salting the sacrifice, trimming the lampstand, burning the incense, presenting the burnt offering and drink offering, blessing the people and blasting the silver trumpets. This was followed by the Psalm of the day, presented by the singers, accompanied by instrumental music.

Immediately after the morning service, the Israelites might bring in their private sacrifices and offerings. It would occasionally continued till near the time for the evening sacrifice, which was about 2:30 pm. The evening service was similar to the morning service. It ended at about 4:00 pm.

At night, the priests kept watch about the innermost places of the Temple, including the inner court and the Temple itself. They also opened and closed all the inner gates.

On a Sabbath day, there were the weekly renewal of the showbread and an additional burnt offering of two lambs. Before the actual Sabbath commenced, the service of the new course of priests and Levites had already begun.

After the evening service, the outgoing course handed over the keys of the sanctuary, the holy vessels, and everything else they had in charge to the new course. At sunset on Friday, the Sabbath began. Immediately followed was the renewal of the showbread. It had been prepared by the incoming course before the Sabbath itself, in one of the side chambers of the Temple.

Although the service of the incoming priests had begun, that of the outgoing had not yet completely finished. In fact, the outgoing priests offered the morning sacrifice on the Sabbath (Saturday morning), and then the incoming course performed the evening sacrifice. Both courses spent the Sabbath in the Temple.

The Sabbath service was the same as on other days, except that at the close of the morning sacrifice two additional lambs were offered, along with its appropriate meal and drink offerings(Num 28:9-10). When the Sabbath was over, the outgoing course left the Temple and parted from each other with a farewell.

On New Moons and other festivals, there were additional rituals to be observed according to the Law.³¹⁵

The historian Josephus records some incredible events concerning the Temple in the year 66 A.D., just four years before the total destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman armies.

Moreover, the eastern gate of the inner (22) [court of the] temple, which was of brass, and vastly heavy, and had been with difficulty shut by twenty men, and rested upon a basis armed with iron, and had bolts fastened very deep into the firm floor, which was there made of one entire stone, was seen to be opened of its own accord about the sixth hour of the night. Now those that kept watch in the temple came hereupon running to the captain of the temple, and told him of it; who then came up thither, and not without great difficulty was able to shut the gate again. This also appeared to the vulgar to be a very happy prodigy, as if God did thereby open them the gate of happiness. But the men of learning understood it, that the security of their holy house was dissolved of its own accord, and that the gate was opened for the advantage of their enemies. So these publicly declared that the signal foreshowed the desolation that was coming upon them.

Besides these, a few days after that feast, on the one and twentieth day of the month Artemisius, [Jyar,] a certain prodigious and incredible phenomenon appeared: I suppose the account of it would seem to be a fable, were it not related by those that saw it, and were not the events that followed it of so considerable a nature as to deserve such signals; for, before sun-setting, chariots and troops of soldiers in their armor were seen running about among the clouds, and surrounding of cities. Moreover, at that feast which we call Pentecost, as the priests were going by night into the inner [court of the temple,] as their custom was, to perform their sacred ministrations, they said that, in the first place, they felt a quaking, and heard a great noise, and after that they heard a sound as of a great multitude, saying, “Let us remove hence.”³¹⁶

Wherefore I cannot but suppose that God is fled out of his sanctuary, and stands on the side of those against whom you fight. Now even a man, if he be but a good man, will fly from an impure house, and will hate those that are in it; and do you persuade yourselves that God will abide with you in your iniquities…³¹⁷

The Midrash^a on Lam 2:11 claims that the Jews had come to realize that the Shekinah Glory had left the Temple and had hovered over the Mount of Olives. According to these same writings, a voice was heard from these regions calling Israel to repent. It remained there for three and a half years.³¹⁸ Of further interest, Ernest L. Martin writes that he believes that Jesus was crucified and resurrected from the vicinity of the same Mount.³¹⁹

TERTULLIAN

The church eventually declared the Montanists heretical (Carthage, 203 AD).

Thirty-one of his books written in Latin still survive. They promote Christianity, point out the legal and logical absurdity of the persecutions, and encourage the saints. His views of the Trinity became accepted orthodoxy. Some of his better-known books include:

• Apologeticus (an impassioned defense against paganism)
• De Pracscriptione Hereticorum (“On the Claims of Heretics”)
• De Baptismo (“On Baptism”)
• De Oratione (“On Prayer”)

THYATIRA

The ruins of Thyatira are located inside the modern Turkish city of Akhisar, between Bergama (Pergamum) and Sardis. Thyatira became part of the Roman Republic in 133 BC. According to the Greek geographer Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD) and the historian Titus Livius (Livy – 64/59 BC – AD 12/17), it was one of the major cities of the Roman province of Asia.

Luke, in Acts 16:14, mentions that Lydia, a woman who was a dealer in the purple dye industry, was from Thyatira and became an early believer in Christ. Paul may have brought the Gospel message to Thyatira during his missionary journey through Asia Minor where he spent a great deal of time in Ephesus (Acts 19:10, 20:31).

Excavations have uncovered a Roman street, parts of public buildings, and ancient coins, indicating thriving businesses of smiths and bronze workers. Several coins have been found depicting the blacksmith god Hephaestus, crafting a helmet and demeter holding a fiery torch. Gods such as Zeus, Artemis, Apollo, Demeter, and Athena were worshiped in the city, and a temple to Emperor Vespasian may have been built there before the end of the first century AD³²³.

John’s letter in Revelation warns the ancient church about a false, self-proclaimed prophetess whom he calls Jezebel (Revelation 2:20; 1 Kings 16:31; 2 Kings 9:22) who was leading many believers into pagan practices. Many mystery religions and early Gnosticism, considered secret because only special initiates were allowed to learn and participate in the rituals, flourished throughout the Empire, and the deep things of Satan (Rev 2:24) may be a reference to these cults.

TOBIT

The Book of Tobit appears in those versions of the Old Testament following the Greek Septuagintå – generally Roman Catholic and Orthodox versions. It does not appear in the Hebrew Bible and is placed with the Apocrypha in Protestant versions of the Bible.

The narrative is set in the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh sometime between the latter part of the 8th century BC, after the defeat of the kingdom of Israel by Assyria, and the destruction of Nineveh in 612 BC. Modern scholars generally agree that Tobit reflects little that can be considered genuine history, except perhaps the names of some of the characters³²⁴. A type of wisdom literature, the book was probably written as late as the 2nd or even the 1st century BC in Palestine. The author is unknown. The language of the original was either Aramaic or Hebrew. The oldest surviving complete text is in Greek. In 1955, fragments of the book in Aramaic and in Hebrew were recovered at Qumran (see Dead Sea Scrolls).³²⁵

UNIVERSALISM (Ultimate Reconciliation)

A Council at Constantinople in 543 condemned a list of Origen’s teachings, including Apokatastasis (reconstitution or restitution). The doctrine of the final restoration of all souls is also found in the writings of some fourth and fifth-century scholars, such as Gregory of Nyssa, bishop of Nyssa (c. 372 – c. 395), Diodore of Tarsus (bishop, died c. 390), Theodore of Mopsuestia (bishop, 392 to 428 AD), and some Nestorian theologians.

The conundrum of an infinitely loving God who created man with an innately sinful nature, and then damned him to eternal punishment for it, gave rise to movements such as Arminianism (Jacobus Arminius 1560–1609), in which the Gospel offers salvation to all men, and the Quaker doctrine that God’s grace is given to all men, but may be resisted. The extreme position is that all humankind will eventually be saved. Richard Bauckham, of the University of St. Andrews holds that among less conservative Bible scholars, the concept of a universal salvation is so generally accepted that many assume it without a great deal of argument³²⁶.

F. D. E. Schleiermacher, J. A. T. Robinson, and John Hick are among modern theologians who have espoused universalism.³²⁷

VALLEY of JEHOSHAPHAT

Jehoshaphat means God shall judge, or, Jehovah has judged. A valley to the east and adjacent to the city of Jerusalem, it has long been regarded as the place where the final judgment of all nations will take place (Joel 3:2, 12). It is also referred to as the Valley of Decision (Joel 3:14). Zech 14:2 is commonly taken as a reference to this place, now known as the Valley of the Kidron. The pseudepigraphical book of 1 Enoch (53:1) places the judgment in a deep valley near Hinnom (Valley of Gehenna).

Eusebius calls it the Valley of Hinnom, while Jerome speaks of the Kidron Valley and uses Joel 3:2 and 3:12 as references. The concept of the valley as a place of final judgment is shared by Jewish, Moslem, and Christian traditions and is attested to by the extensive cemeteries of all three faiths on the slopes of the valley.

The valley probably was named after King Jehoshaphat and was also known as the King’s Dale (2 Sam 18:18), where Absalom erected a pillar and expected to be buried (the monument now called Absalom’s Tomb is of a later period, as are the adjacent Tomb of St. James, and Tomb of Zechariah). The Spring of Gihon and the Pool of Siloam, as well as the Spring of En-Rogel, flow there along with remnants of older water systems. The Garden of Gethsemane, with the nearby Basilica of the Agony, is located on the valley floor, and the Potter’s Field (Matt 27) is found in the confluence of the Kidron and Gehenna (OT Hinnom) valleys.

VICTORINUS

He was more proficient in Greek than in Latin, which led Saint Jerome to remark that Victorinus’s Latin writings were notable more for their substance than for their style. He was the first theologian to use Latin in his exegetical works³²⁹.

Most of Victorinus’s writings are exegetical, meaning they provide critical explanations or analyses, particularly of scripture texts. He composed commentaries on various biblical books, including Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Habakkuk, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, the Gospel of Matthew, and the Apocalypse of John (Revelation). Additionally, he wrote theological discourses against Christian sects that he considered heretical. The only works of his that have survived from antiquity are his Commentary on the Apocalypse and the short treatise On the Construction of the World (De fabrica mundi)³³⁰.

WISDOM (scripture) or WISDOM OF SOLOMON

The Wisdom of Solomon is found in Old Testament versions that follow the Greek Septuagint—generally Roman Catholic and Orthodox versions. It does not appear in the Hebrew Bible and is placed with the Apocrypha in Protestant versions of the Bible.

The first five chapters of the book urge the reader to love righteousness and seek God in order to gain true wisdom and immortality. The miserable fate of the unwise is contrasted with the blessedness of the righteous. Chapters 6-9 commend Godly wisdom as humanity’s guide and describe the nature of wisdom, its importance, and how one may find it.

Throughout the first ten chapters, Wisdom is usually personified as a woman, but the term rarely appears in the rest of the book. The remaining chapters mainly describe how Israel and Israel’s ancestors were saved through wisdom. The book seems to end abruptly, suggesting that the original conclusion may have been lost.³³³

WORMWOOD

The absinthe of France is distilled from a species of this plant³³⁵. The southernwood or old man, cultivated in cottage gardens on account of its fragrance, is another species of it³³⁶.

YHWH (YAHWEH)

These letters are called the sacred tetragrammaton, the sacred four letters³³⁷. In Hebrew writing the vowels had to be supplied by the reader, and no one really knows what the vowels in Y-H-W-H were, though many scholars think it to be Y-A-H-W-E-H.  The name was so holy that it was never pronounced.  While commonly pronounced JEHOVAH, the vowels in Jehovah are really those of the Hebrew word Adonay (Strong’s H36), which means Lord, the name by which the Jews called God in order to avoid pronouncing the sacred name.

Prof. Israel Knohl suggests that the name actually originates beyond Midian where Moses encountered the burning bush, and derives from the Arabic term for love, desire, or passion³³⁸. Prof. Knohl further writes that the tradition of a “passionate (jealous) deity who demanded the sole attention of his people in the midst of other gods, was an ancient one.

When Moses asks God his name, God first answers by saying “I am what I am” and even follows this up with “tell them Ehyeh (I-Am) sent you.” The word ehyeh (“I am”) sounds very much like YHWH, and is meant as a play on words, explaining that YHWH’s name means “he will be” or “being.”³³⁹

God also said to Moses, Say this to the people of Israel, ‘The LORD, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you.’ This is my name forever, and thus I am to be remembered throughout all generations. (Exod 3:15)

ZEALOTS

The Zealots were a Jewish sect known for their strong opposition to pagan Rome and its polytheistic beliefs. The word zealot derives from the Greek zelotes, meaning “emulator or (zealous) follower.”³⁴⁰ They functioned as an aggressive political party, driven by a deep concern for the national and religious life of the Jewish people. This passion led them to disdain even fellow Jews who sought peace and cooperation with Roman authorities. A census of Galilee ordered by Rome in AD 6 prompted the Zealots to encourage the populace to resist, arguing that compliance would imply a recognition of pagan authority over their nation³⁴¹.

They frequented public places armed with concealed daggers to assassinate individuals who supported Rome. During the first revolt against Rome (AD 66–70), the Zealots played a prominent role. In 73 AD, at Masada, the defenders chose to commit suicide rather than surrender the fortress. Despite this tragic event, they continued to be a significant force in the early part of the following century. Some scholars suggest that there may be a connection between the Zealots and the Jewish religious community mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Not all Zealots were extremists or killers. Matthew 10:4 (also Mark 3:18, Luke 6:15, and  Acts 1:13) lists Simon the Zealot as one of the original twelve apostles.

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Footnotes

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1. Galatía, (Gaul) was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir, in modern Turkey. ↩︎
2. From Latin Epiphanēs, from Ancient Greek Ἐπιφανής (Epiphanḗs),  meaning, illustrious one, or god manifest. ↩︎
3. Gottheil, Richard, and Krauss, Samuel, 2002-2021, JewishEncyclopedia.com. Accessed August 22, 2019. ↩︎
4. Hans Volkmann, Britannica  Antiochus IV Epiphanes, June 10, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antiochus-IV-Epiphanes ↩︎
5. Arius. (2020, September 25). Retrieved from Wikipedia website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arius, March 15, 2022. ↩︎
6. Matt 1:23; John 1:1-3, 14, 20:27-28; Rom 9:5; Col 1:15-16, 2:8-10; 1 Tim 1:16-17, 2:3-4, 3:16, 6:14-16; Titus 1:3, 2:10, 2:13; Heb 1:1-3, 1:8; Jude 25. ↩︎
7. Ferguson, Everett (2005). Church History, Vol. 1: From Christ to pre-Reformation, page 267. ↩︎
8. Boer, Harry R., A Short History of the Early Church, 1978, page 108. ↩︎
9. The Editors, Arius, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arius. This article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello, Associate Editor, Jul 24, 2019, retrieved October 10, 2021. ↩︎
10. See Appendix: Nicaean Council. ↩︎
11. Bethune-Baker, James,  The Meaning of Homoousios in the Constantinopolitan Creed, cited in Wikipedia: Nicaean Council, retrieved March 15, 2022. ↩︎
12. Ibid. ↩︎
13. Rom 3:23. ↩︎
14. Rom 3:9, 5:12. ↩︎
15. Albert Barnes, The Atonement, 1860, Jawbone Digital. Kindle Edition. ↩︎
16. Ibid. ↩︎
17. Ibid. ↩︎
18. Also: Ps 40:6-8, Heb 10:4. ↩︎
19. Rom 2:4, 2 Cor 7:9-10, 2 Tim 2:25. ↩︎
20. 1 Cor 2:14. ↩︎
21. 2 Cor 3:18. ↩︎
22. Eph 2:8-10. ↩︎
23. Isa 9:6, Matt 1:22-23, Luke 1:35, John 1:9-14, John 14:9, Col 1:15, Heb 1:2-3. ↩︎
24. John 14:17, 15:26, 16:13, Eph 1:13. ↩︎
25. 1 Cor 6:11, Rev 3:5, 7:14. ↩︎
26. Augustine: Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
27. Ibid. ↩︎
28. Learn Religions: Biography of St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in North Africa (354 to 430 AD), https://www.learnreligions.com/biography-of-st-augustine-700002, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
29. Ibid. ↩︎
30. Ibid. ↩︎
31. World History Encyclopedia: Augustine of Hipop, https://www.worldhistory.org/Augustine_of_Hippo/, retrieved November 8, 2024. ↩︎
32. Biblical history found in Num 22:2, through Num 24:25; compare Num 31:8, 16; Dt 23:4; Josh 13:22; Josh 24:9; Neh 13:2; Mic 6:5; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14. ↩︎
33. The Codex Sinaiticus (codex: pages of vellum, papyrus, or other material bound along one edge, as opposed to a scroll) was discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula in 1844. The hand-written manuscript was produced in the mid-fourth century and contains the Christian Bible in Greek, including the oldest complete copy of the New Testament. It also contains about half of the Greek Old Testament (or Septuagint), the Deuterocanonical books, the Epistle of Barnabas, and portions of The Shepherd of Hermas. Most of the manuscript is held today in the British Library in London, where it is on public display. (See codexsinaiticus.org, where the manuscript can be viewed in its entirety online]). ↩︎
34. Isa 1:11. ↩︎
35. Eusebius, 3:25. ↩︎
36. Crossan, John Dominic, The Cross that Spoke, p. 121. ↩︎
37. Ibid. ↩︎
38. See, Gnosticism, Appendix. ↩︎
39. Cerinthus is also mentioned by Hippolytus in Refutation of All Heresies (also known as Philosophoumena, VII, 33, c. 230), Tertullian in Adv. Omnes Haeres (Against All Heresies), c. 240, Dionysius of Alexandria, taken from De Promissionibus, c. 250, and Eusebius, c. 325. The most detailed account is given by Epiphanius (Against Heresies, XXVI, written about 390). ↩︎
40. Clement of Alexandria: Oxford Bibliographies, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0198.xml, retrieved November 11, 2024. ↩︎
41. Ibid. ↩︎
42. Clement of Alexandria: Bio and Significant Christian Writings, https://www.bartehrman.com/clement-of-alexandria/, accessed November 11, 2024. ↩︎
43. Clement of Alexandria: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria, accessed November 11, 2024. ↩︎
44. Clement of Rome: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Rome, retrieved November 11, 2024. ↩︎
45. Who is Clement of Rome? By Ryan Nelson, August 31, 2018, Article 2 comments, https://overviewbible.com/clement-of-rome/, accessed November 11, 2024. ↩︎
46. Schaff, Philip. History Of The Christian Church (The Complete Eight Volumes In One), Kindle Edition, Location number 12947-12968.erinthus is also mentioned by Hippolytus in Refutation of All Heresies (also known as Philosophoumena, VII, 33, c. 230), Tertullian in Adv. Omnes Haeres (Against All Heresies), c. 240, Dionysius of Alexandria, taken from De Promissionibus, c. 250, and Eusebius, c. 325. The most detailed account is given by Epiphanius (Against Heresies, XXVI, written about 390). ↩︎
47. Ibid.  ↩︎
48. The Libelli of the Decian Persecution, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Oct., 1923), pp. 345-390 (46 pages), Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Harvard Divinity School (can be viewed online at https://www.jstor.org/stable/1507673?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents). ↩︎
49. “P.Mich.inv. 263; Recto.” https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/apis/x-1608/263_a.tif. University of Michigan Library Digital Collections. Accessed: October 24, 2021. ↩︎
50. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, location 1268. ↩︎
51. Deism: https://www.facebook.com/learn.religions. (2018). Retrieved from Learn Religions website: https://www.learnreligions.com/deism-95703, August 23, 2022. ↩︎
52. Beyer, Catherine. Deism: Belief in a Perfect God Who Does Not Intervene. Learn Religions, Aug. 25, 2020, learnreligions.com/deism-95703. ↩︎
53. Ibid. ↩︎
54. Ibid. ↩︎
55. Ibid. ↩︎
56. Ancient Jewish History: Diaspora, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-diaspora, accessed July 10 2023. ↩︎
57. Ibid. ↩︎
58. Diaspora: New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, Diaspora. ↩︎
59. Didache: New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, January 3, 2022. ↩︎
60. Ibid. ↩︎
61. John T. Lowe, World History.org, Didache, published on 22 July 2015, https://www.worldhistory.org/Didache/, accessed June 21, 2022. ↩︎
62. Ibid. ↩︎
63. Dionysius of Alexandria: New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, February 10, 2018. ↩︎
64. See Appendix, Decian Persecution. ↩︎
65. Ibid. ↩︎
66. Docetism, Oxford Biblical Studies Online, Published by Oxford University Press USA, First published October 2009. ↩︎
67. Ibid. ↩︎
68. Council of Chalcedon, https://www.orthodoxpath.org/catechisms-and-articles/council-of-chalcedon-451ad/, October, 2021. ↩︎
69. Domitian: (n.d.), World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org/domitian/, Retrieved March 5, 2022. ↩︎
70. Ibid. ↩︎
71. Ibid. ↩︎
72. Ibid. ↩︎
73. Donatism, Theopedia.com,  https://www.theopedia.com/Donatism, retrieved September, 2021. ↩︎
74. Ibid. ↩︎
75. Austin Cline, Learn Religions, Donatus:https://www.learnreligions.com/what-did-donatists-believe-249505, accessed September,2021. ↩︎
76. Ibid. ↩︎
77. Ibid. ↩︎
78. Donatism: mb-soft.com website: https://mb-soft.com/believe/txw/donatism.htm Retrieved March 17, 2022. ↩︎
79. Gregg, p. 64. ↩︎
80. Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter 12. ↩︎
81. History.com, Ephesus, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/ephesus, updated June 22, 2023, accessed September 2023. ↩︎
82. Ibid. ↩︎
83. Ibid. ↩︎
84. Ibid. ↩︎
85. Essenes: Jewish Virtual Library, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pharisees-sadducees-and-essenes, accessed November 9, 2024. ↩︎
86. Bible History Daily: Who were the Essenes? https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/who-were-the-essenes/, accessed November 9, 2024. ↩︎
87. Dr. John Barnett, Christianity.com: Who Were the Essenes? Facts and Meaning from the Bible, https://www.christianity.com/jesus/birth-of-jesus/genealogy-and-jewish-heritage/who-were-the-essenes.html, accessed November 9, 2024. ↩︎
88. Ibid. ↩︎
89. Ibid. ↩︎
90. Denova, Rebecca. Eusebius on Christianity. World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 15 Oct 2021. Web. 24 Oct 2021. ↩︎
91. See Arius, Arianism, Appendix. ↩︎
92. Denova, Eusebius on Christianity. ↩︎
93. “Eusebius of Caesarea,” Microsoft® Encarta® 96 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls Corporation. All rights reserved. ↩︎
94. Gematria, https://www.gematrix.org/gematria.php, © 2005 – 2021 Underdog Projects – c2kb.com, retrieved June 10, 2021. ↩︎
95. Ibid. ↩︎
96. Zavada, Jack. “Gnosticism: Definition and Beliefs.” Learn Religions, learnreligions.com/what-is-gnosticism-700683, retrieved Feb. 8, 2021. ↩︎
97. Beyer, Catherine. Religious Components of Gnosticism, Learn Religions, learnreligions.com/gnosticism-95688, retrieved Aug. 26, 2020. ↩︎
98. Orr, James, M.A., D.D. General Editor. Gnosticism, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 1915, https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/gnosticism/, accessed August 18, 2021. ↩︎
99. Ibid. ↩︎
100. Brons, David, Gnostic Society Library, http://www.gnosis.org/library/valentinus/Valentinus.htm, accessed October 12, 2021. ↩︎
101. Robinson, B.A., http://www.religioustolerance.org/gnostic1.htm, Copyright © 1996, to 2006 by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, Latest update: 2006-MAR-30. ↩︎
102. Orr, James, The Progress of Dogma, London Hodder and Stoughton, 1901, p.58. ↩︎
103. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/angels-and-angelology-2. ↩︎
104. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Gnosticism. ↩︎
105. Bible Study Tools: Gog and Magog,  https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-stories/gog-and-magog-bible-story.html, updated March 28, 2024, accessed July 18, 2024. ↩︎
106. Ibid. ↩︎
107. Strong’s H8613. ↩︎
108. Bible Gateway, Encyclopedia of the Bible, Valley of Hinnom, https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Valley-Hinnom, accessed May 3, 2023. ↩︎
109. Matt 5:22, 5:29, 5:30, 10:28, 18:9, 23:15, Mark 9:43, 9:45, 9:47, Luke 12:5, Jas 3:6, 2Pet 2:4. ↩︎
110. Lucifer: Strong’s H1966 הֵילֵל ,heylel, (hay-lale’) n-m. 1. something or someone of radiant splendor. 2. (epithet of praise) Radiantly Splendid One. 3. (epithet of rebuke) Boastful One of Radiant Splendor (i.e. as spoken only by Yahweh to the King of Babylon). ↩︎
111. Ibid. ↩︎
112. Ibid. ↩︎
113. (ed. Mommsen in “Mon. Germ. Hist.: auctores antiquissimi”, IX, 72, 74). ↩︎
114. O’Connor, John Bonaventure. St. Ignatius of Antioch, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm>. 25 Oct. 2021 ↩︎
115. Ibid. ↩︎
116. Irenaeus: Theopedia.com website: https://www.theopedia.com/irenaeus. Retrieved September 5, 2019. ↩︎
117. Ibid. ↩︎
118. Victor 1, the fourteenth bishop of Rome in the late second century (189–199 A.D.) ↩︎
119. https://www.theopedia.com/irenaeus, accessed July 10, 2021. ↩︎
120. Poncelet, Albert. “St. Irenaeus.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08130b.htm, accessed 25 October, 2021. ↩︎
121. Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D, Jerome: Everything About the “Doctor of the Church”https://www.bartehrman.com/jerome/, retrieved November 8, 2024. ↩︎
122. Ibid. ↩︎
123. Ibid. ↩︎
124. Ibid. ↩︎
125. Ibid. ↩︎
126. Jerome, Christian Scholar, Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Jerome, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
127. Matt 4:21. ↩︎
128. Greek: apostolos,  a messenger, an envoy. Matt 10:1-4, Mark 3:13-19 and Luke 6:12-16. ↩︎
129. Mark 3:17; Luke 9:51-56. ↩︎
130. Matt 17:1-9. ↩︎
131. Mark 5:37. ↩︎
132. Matt 26:37. ↩︎
133. Rev 1:9. ↩︎
134. Eusebius, Church History, Book V, Chapter 23-24. ↩︎
135. Ibid, Book III, Chapter 20:10-11. ↩︎
136. Josephus Flavius: www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org website: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/josephus-flavius, Retrieved June 2, 2021. ↩︎
137. Poole, Gary William. “Flavius Josephus”. Encyclopedia Britannica, Invalid Date, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavius-Josephus. Accessed June 2, 2021. ↩︎
138. Ibid. ↩︎
139. Ibid. ↩︎
140. Judas Maccabeus: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Judas-Maccabeus. Accessed 25 October 2021. ↩︎
141. Lebreton, J. (1910). St. Justin Martyr. In The Catholic Encyclopedia., New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08580c.htm. Retrieved October 22, 2021. ↩︎
142. Ibid. ↩︎
143. Kirby, Peter. “Historical Jesus Theories.” Early Christian Writings, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dialogue-with-Trypho.Retrieved  22 Oct. 2021. ↩︎
144. Lebreton, J. (1910). St. Justin Martyr. Retrieved October 22, 2021. ↩︎
145. Josephus, Ant. Jud., xii.3.4. ↩︎
146. Wikipedia, wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodicea_on_the_Lycus;
     Retrieved December 14, 2021. ↩︎
147. Ibid. ↩︎
148. Pliny, vol. 29. ↩︎
149. Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD), was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. ↩︎
150. Harmon, M., Early Christian Writings, Introduction and Manuscripts, Lucian of Samosata. October 25, 2021. ↩︎
151. Ibid. ↩︎
152. Kirby, Peter. Early Christian Writings, Lucian of Samosata.. 2021. 25 Oct. 2021. ↩︎
153. Ibid. ↩︎
154. Beyer, Catherine. “A Look at Satan Through the Eyes of the Luciferians.” Learn Religions, Sep. 4, 2021, learnreligions.com/who-is-lucifer-95920. ↩︎
155. Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus: Encyclopedia. (n.d.), theodora.com website: https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/m/gaius_julius_verus_maximinus.html, Retrieved June 7, 2020. ↩︎
156. Ibid. ↩︎
157. Midrash: https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/midrash-101/ . Accessed September 19, 2020. ↩︎
158. Ibid. ↩︎
159. Ibid. ↩︎
160. Ibid. ↩︎
161. Moses ben Maimon(1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides, also referred to by the acronym Rambam, was a medieval Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician, serving as the personal physician of Saladin. Born in Córdoba, Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain) on Passover eve, 1138 (or 1135), he worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt. He died in Egypt on 12 December 1204, whence his body was taken to the lower Galilee and buried in Tiberias. ↩︎
162. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings. 12:5. ↩︎
163. What is premillennialism (Chiliasm)? (n.d.), GotQuestions.org: https://www.gotquestions.org/premillennialism.html, retrieved July 20, 2021. ↩︎
164. Ibid. ↩︎
165. Roberts and Rambaut, The Writings of Irenaeus, vol. 1, Digitized by the Internet Archive, 201, with funding from the University of Toronto, https://www.scribd.com/document/230176056/Rambaut-Roberts-The-writings-of-Irenaeus-1868-Volume-1, accessed April 2, 2021. ↩︎
166. Ibid. ↩︎
167. Eusebius, History of the Church, 3:39. ↩︎
168. Postmillennialism: (n.d.), CompellingTruth.org website: https://www.compellingtruth.org/postmillennialism.html, Retrieved April 2, 2021. ↩︎
169. Amillennialism: (n.d.), Christianity.com website: https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-terms/what-is-amillennialism.html, retrieved April 20, 2021. ↩︎
170. Amillennialism. (2021, May 17). New World Encyclopedia, Retrieved October 26, 2021 from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Amillennialism&oldid=1052831. ↩︎
171. Jarrett, Ed, What is Amillennialism? https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-terms/what-is-amillennialism.html, October 2019, accessed April 20, 2021. ↩︎
172. Ibid. ↩︎
173. Mishnah: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mishnah, Encyclopaedia Judaica, © 2008 The Gale Group. Retrieved October 11, 2021. ↩︎
174. Ibid. ↩︎
175. Ibid. ↩︎
176. Timmons, Greg, Muhammad, https://www.biography.com/religious-figure/muhammad, accessed October, 2021. ↩︎
177. Ibid. ↩︎
178. Garraty and Gay, The Columbia History of the World, page 259. ↩︎
179. Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,  Vol. L, Part I. ↩︎
180. Njeim, George A., Insights Into The Book Of Revelation, U.S.A., Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 75-114838, 1970, page 82. ↩︎
181. Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,  Vol. L, Part I. ↩︎
182. Timmons, paragraph 4. ↩︎
183. Timmons, paragraph 6. ↩︎
184. Marjanen, Antti, and  Luomanen, Petri: A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’. (Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, vol.76), p. 279. ↩︎
185. Ibid. ↩︎
186. Pritz, Ray A., Nazarene Jewish Christianity: From the end of the New Testament Period until its disappearance in the Fourth Century, The Magnes Press, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1992, p.35, 43, 53-54. https://www.academia.edu/24929210/NAZARENE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANITY_From_the_End_of_the_New_Testament_Period_Until_Its_Disappearance_in_the_Fourth_Century. ↩︎
187. Kennedy, Arnold, Hope of Israel Ministries (Ecclesia of YEHOVAH). ↩︎
188. Wasson, Donald L, Nero, World History Encyclopedia, 29 Jun 2012. Web. 26 Oct 2021. ↩︎
189. Ibid. ↩︎
190. Ibid. ↩︎
191. Tacitus, Annals, XIV.2. ↩︎
192. Tacitus, Histories, Book 1. ↩︎
193. Ibid. ↩︎
194. Tacitus, Annals, XIV.2. ↩︎
195. Ibid, 1-8. ↩︎
196. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 49. ↩︎
197. First Council of Nicaea: The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). First Council of Nicaea | Description, History, Significance, & Facts. In Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Council-of-Nicaea-325, Retrieved July 2, 2019. ↩︎
198. Origen, Christian Theologian: Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Origen, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
199. Ibid. ↩︎
200. Ibid. ↩︎
201. Origen: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://iep.utm.edu/origen-of-alexandria/, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
202. Origen: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
203. Who Was Origen of Alexandria? Got Questions, https://www.gotquestions.org/Origen-of-Alexandria.html, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
204. Parthia,” Microsoft® Encarta® 96 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls Corporation. Retrieved August 17, 1998. ↩︎
205. Ibid. ↩︎
206. Ibid. ↩︎
207. Patmos: Biblical Definitions, https://biblicaldefinitions.com/exploring-patmos-in-the-bible-its-significance/, accessed January 2021. ↩︎
208. Mary Fairchild, Learn Religions, What is Pelagianism and Why is it Condemned as Heresy? 2020, https://www.learnreligions.com/what-is-pelagianism-4783772, accessed February 13, 2022. ↩︎
209. Pella, Jordan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pella,_Jordan#cite_ref-Graf1992_7-0, accessed Jan. 27, 2024. ↩︎
210. Pergamum, Encyclopedia of the Bible, https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Pergamum, citing G. Cardinali, Il regno di Pergamo (1906); A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (1937); M. Rostovtzeff, The Hellenistic World (1941), retrieved February 12, 2022. ↩︎
211. Ibid. ↩︎
212. Ibid. ↩︎
213. Veronica Parkes, The Library of Pergamum: A Contender for the Greatest Library of the Ancient World. Ancient Origins, https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/library-pergamum-contender-greatest-library-ancient-world-007601, updated 24 February 2017 – 01:58. Retrieved November 19, 2021. ↩︎
214. Ibid. ↩︎
215. Tertullian, Perpetua and Felicitas, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian24.html. ↩︎
216. Ibid. ↩︎
217. Origin of the Pharisees, Bible History Online, https://www.bible-history.com/pharisees/phariseesorigin.htm, retrieved November 20, 2021. ↩︎
218. Ibid. ↩︎
219. Ibid. ↩︎
220. Ibid. ↩︎
221. The Sanhedrin (Hebrew: sitting together, council) were assemblies of either twenty-three or seventy-one elders (known as rabbis after the destruction of the Second Temple), who were appointed to sit as a tribunal in every city in the ancient Land of Israel. ↩︎
222. Philadelphia, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. https://www.internationalstandardbible.com/P/philadelphia.html, Retrieved February 17, 2022. ↩︎
223. Ibid. ↩︎
224. Caird, p. 51. ↩︎
225. The Decapolis (Greek: Ten Cities) was a group of ten cities on the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire in the southeastern Levant in the first centuries BC and AD. Sometimes described as a league of cities, the Decapolis was a center of Greek and Roman culture in a region that was otherwise populated by Semitic-speaking people (Nabataeans, Arameans, and Canaanites). Most of the Decapolis region is located in Jordan, except Damascus (in Syria), Hippos, and Scythopolis (in Israel). ↩︎
226. Caird, p. 51. ↩︎
227. James Burton Coffman Commentaries on the Bible. (n.d.)., Revelation 3 Commentary – from Truth According to Scripture website: https://www.truthaccordingtoscripture.com/commentaries/bcc/revelation-3.php#.YjR2lDVOm3A. Retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
228. Ibid. ↩︎
229. Philo Judaeus: Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Retrieved August, 1998. ↩︎
230. Philo Judaeus: Jewish philosopher. (n.d.), Encyclopedia Britannica website: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philo-Judaeus, retrieved March 17, 2022. ↩︎
231. Philo, Allegorical Interpretation, Books I, II, III. ↩︎
232. Philo Judaeus: Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. Retrieved August, 1998. ↩︎
233. Lévy, C. (2018). Philo of Alexandria (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu website: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philo/. Retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
234. Ibid. ↩︎
235. Ibid. ↩︎
236. Phylacteries: JewishEncyclopedia.com. (n.d.)., from www.jewishencyclopedia.com website: https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12125-phylacteries,  Retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
237. Ibid. ↩︎
238. Ibid. ↩︎
239. Pliny the Younger: Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved September 2000. ↩︎
240. Ibid. ↩︎
241. Ibid. ↩︎
242. Pliny the Younger, Letter to Trajan, 10.96. ↩︎
243. Caird, p.274. ↩︎
244. Charles, C.H., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John, p. 167f. ↩︎
245. Farrer, p. 219. ↩︎
246. Barclay, Revelation 21. ↩︎
247. Pseudepigrapha, Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. Retrieve March, 1999. ↩︎
248. Mastin, Luke, Right Left, Right Wrong, https://rightleftrightwrong.com/history_ancient.html, copyright 2012, retrieved November 10, 2021. ↩︎
249. Right and Left, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/right-and-left, retrieved November 10, 2021. ↩︎
250. Sadducees:  https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/sadducees, retrieved Dec. 14, 2023. ↩︎
251. Who Were the Sadducees in the Bible? Christianity.com, https://www.christianity.com/wiki/people/who-were-the-sadducees-in-the-bible-what-were-their-beliefs.html, accessed November 8, 2024. ↩︎
252. Jewish Virtual Library, Ancient Jewish History: Pharisees, Sadducees & Essenes, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pharisees-sadducees-and-essenes, retrieved November 11, 2024. ↩︎
253. Sardis: World History Encyclopedia website: https://www.worldhistory.org/sardis/, retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
254. Ibid. ↩︎
255. Polybius (c. 200 – c. 118 BC) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work The Histories, which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail. ↩︎
256. Sardis: Centre, U. W. H. (n.d.). The Ancient City of Sardis and the Lydian Tumuli of Bin Tepe. Retrieved March 18, 2022, from UNESCO World Heritage Centre website: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5829/. ↩︎
257. Tamerlane was a Turkic conqueror who established an empire that reached from India to the Mediterranean Sea. He lived from 1333 to 1405. ↩︎
258. Smyrna: www.bibleplaces.com/smyrna/; https://theculturetrip.com. Accessed March 21, 2022. ↩︎
259. Also Job 3:8; Ps. 74:14; Ps.104:26; Isa. 27:1. ↩︎
260. Tablets with cuneiform writing were discovered in 1929 by a farmer near modern day Ras Shamra in Syria, the ancient city of Ugarit. The Ugaritic language was found to be very similar to Hebrew. ↩︎
261. Got Questions: Who Were the Scribes That Often Argued with Jesus? https://www.gotquestions.org/scribes-Jesus.html, retrieved November 9, 2024. ↩︎
262. Ibid. ↩︎
263. Scythians: World History Encyclopedia website: https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/, retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
264. Yamauchi, Edwin, The Scythians—Who Were They? CBE International, October 30, 2007. ↩︎
265. Ibid. ↩︎
266. Augustyn, Adam, Scythians, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scythian. Retrieved October 29, 2021. ↩︎
267. Ibid. ↩︎
268. Ibid. ↩︎
269. Ibid. ↩︎
270. Scythians, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians, accessed July 30, 2024. ↩︎
271. “Scythians,” Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. ↩︎
272. Septuagint, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Septuagint, revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello, Associate Editor. Retrieved October 29, 2021. ↩︎
273. Ibid. ↩︎
274. Contributed by Rev. Bruce Vawter, Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. ↩︎
275. Sibylline Oracles: The Online Critical Pseudepigrapha. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2022, from pseudepigrapha.org website: https://pseudepigrapha.org/docs/intro/SibOr. ↩︎
276. Ibid. ↩︎
277. Ibid. ↩︎
278. Ibid. ↩︎
279. The Sibylline Oracles, Translated from the Greek by Milton S. Terry, 1899. ↩︎
280. Smyrna, Drive Thru History Adventures, https://drivethruhistoryadventures.com/ancient-smyrna/, retrieved February 13, 2022. ↩︎
281. Ibid. ↩︎
282. Ibid. ↩︎
283. Smyrna, Bible Study / Biblestudy.org https://www.biblestudy.org/biblepic/churches-of-revelation-smyrna.html, retrieved February 11, 2022. ↩︎
284. Eusebius, History of the Church, Book 4, Chapters14-15, and Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippians. ↩︎
285. Ibid. ↩︎
286. The Gospel according to Peter, is considered a non-canonical gospel and was rejected as apocryphal by the Catholic Church’s synods of Carthage and Rome, which established the New Testament canon. ↩︎
287. Schaff, History of the Christian Church: Vol. II, page 380, note 1. ↩︎
288. “Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea”. Ccel.org. 2005-06-01, as noted in Wikipedia article, Sunday, Retrieved November 10, 2021. ↩︎
289. Geoffrey Dennis, Judaism and Numbers, www.myjewishlearning.com. ↩︎
290. Ibid. ↩︎
291. Ibid. ↩︎
292. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. ,January 1, 2008. ↩︎
293. Rabbi Geoffrey Dennis, Geoffrey Daniels, Judaism and Numbers, www.myjewishlearning.com. Retrieved August 1, 2019. ↩︎
294. Tyndale Bible Dictionary. ↩︎
295. Meaning of the Number 10 in the Bible. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.biblestudy.org website: https://www.biblestudy.org/bibleref/meaning-of-numbers-in-bible/10.html, March 18, 2022. ↩︎
296. Ibid. ↩︎
297. Ibid. ↩︎
298. Targum Yer., Ex. 18:20, I Chron. 16:39; Pesiḳ. 129b; Philo, “De Vita Mosis,” iii. 27; Josephus, “Contra Ap.” ii., § 17; Acts xv. 21. ↩︎
299. Bacher, Wilhelm, and Dembitz, Lewis, The Synagogue, ©2002-2021, JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 29, 2021. ↩︎
300. Ibid. ↩︎
301. “Synagogue.” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 1915. 4 vol. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988. ↩︎
302. Ibid. ↩︎
303. Elwell, Walter and Robert Yarbrough. Encountering the New Testament, Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998. ↩︎
304. Ibid. ↩︎
305. Ibid. ↩︎
306. Wasson, Donald L. “Tacitus.” World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 02 Jun 2020. Web. 30 Oct 2021. ↩︎
307. Ibid. ↩︎
308. What Is Gemara? (2013, January 23). The Spiritual Life website: https://slife.org/gemara/, retrieved March 18, 2022. ↩︎
309. Ibid. ↩︎
310. Ibid. ↩︎
311. “Talmud,” Contributed by Saul Lieberman, Microsoft® Encarta® 96 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls Corporation. All rights reserved. Retrieved March, 1998. ↩︎
312. Ibid. ↩︎
313. Ibid. ↩︎
314. “Targum,” Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Retrieved March, 1998. ↩︎
315. Edersheim, Alfred, Temple–Its Ministry and Services, (1825-1889) Publisher: Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, https://www.ccel.org/ccel/edersheim/temple.html. Accessed June 12, 2020. ↩︎
316. Josephus, The Jewish Wars, Book 6, Chapter 5, vs. 3. ↩︎
317. Ibid., Book 5, Chapter 9, vs. 4. ↩︎
318. Martin, Ernest L., The Place of Christ’s Crucifixion: Its Discovery and Significance. ↩︎
319. Ibid. ↩︎
320. Tertullian: Christian theologian. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica website: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tertullian, Retrieved August 10, 2021. ↩︎
321. Ibid. ↩︎
322. Hicks, E. L. “Inscriptions from Thyatira.” The Classical Review, vol. 3, no. 3, Cambridge University Press, 1889, pp. 136–38, http://www.jstor.org/stable/693272. ↩︎
323. Ibid. ↩︎
324. “Tobit,” Microsoft® Encarta® 96 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls Corporation. Retrieved January 23, 1998. ↩︎
325. Ibid. ↩︎
326. Bauckham, Richard, Universalism, A Historical Survey, 1978, Theologicalstudies.org.uk,  https://gospelstudies.org.uk/theologicalstudies/article_universalism_bauckham.html. ↩︎
327. Ibid. ↩︎
328. Pannonia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia, retrieved November 11, 2024. ↩︎
329. Victorinus: https://ehrmanblog.org/who-knew-our-oldest-commentary-on-the-book-of-revelation/, retrieved November 11, 2024. ↩︎
330. Ibid. ↩︎
331. Wisdom of Solomon: Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Accessed November, 1999. ↩︎
332. Ibid. ↩︎
333. Ibid. ↩︎
334. Easton, Matthew George. “Entry for Wormwood”. Easton’s Bible Dictionary, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897. Public Domain. ↩︎
335. Ibid. ↩︎
336. Ibid. ↩︎
337. Yahweh: Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yahweh,
     Updated July 25, 2024, accessed July 30, 2024.. ↩︎
338. Knohl, Israel, YHWH: The Original Arabic Meaning of the Name God, https://www.thetorah.com/article/yhwh-the-original-arabic-meaning-of-the-name. Retrieved March 23, 2020. ↩︎
339. Ibid. ↩︎
340. Zealots: https://www.gotquestions.org/Zealots-Bible.html,
     retrieved November 4, 2024.. ↩︎
341. Zealots: Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zealot, retrieved November 4, 2024. ↩︎
342. Ibid. ↩︎

*All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright ©1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.comThe “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™